Maritime transport on oil tankers

The shipping of oil on board tankers (tankers and super tankers carrying up to 400,000 tons of crude oil), represents more than half of world maritime trade. One can imagine the consequences of oil shortage on commercial! (On others for that matter ...).

Initially the oil was transported aboard wooden casks (barrels). The barrel has remained the unit of exchange used. It is 159 L. Now tankers are designed as huge reservoirs, sometimes divided into several compartments to store oil of different characteristics (including density). So we can better manage the weight distribution on the ship.

Over the past 30 years, many maritime disasters involving super-tankers have been held. They have caused ecological and economic disasters along the coast affected by oil spills. Most of the cleanup costs and compensation were supported by local e local governments. The Coastal Cleanup is in turn often provided by volunteers.

Since then, new oil transport ships are equipped with double hulls, which are supposed to reduce disaster risks. But they do not prevent the practice of degassing, responsible for oil spill at sea ... The single-hulled tankers still represent the vast majority of the park. 

The gigantic size of the super-tankers creates monstrous consumption of fuel, but which are reasonable compared to their carrying capacity. Currently, more than 600 tankers with a tonnage greater than 200,000 tonnes in circulation.

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Conclusion on the processing of oil

The oil must undergo many changes to be exploitable in the context of a specific use. These transformations involve multiple energy consumption, little known today (no doubt the oil industry have information on this issue). In the end, the multitude of products can be used in various ways (fuel, fuel, petrochemical, plastics, etc.).. 

These byproducts are sometimes directly recyclable (gasoline, diesel, etc.). sometimes they will suffer from further processing to be usable, some are even-products, which have no real opportunities. 

The tendency is to a maximum value of by-products, and the proportion of products derived is relatively fixed, Indutries oil must seek additional outlets for products produced in over-quantity. For example, the French fleet dieselisation pushes the quantities of products for which we must be sure the application or to find new markets.

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Cracking and reforming

Cracking is to break the long hydrocarbon molecules into smaller molecules. This can be done by thermal process under high pressure, or catalytic (under high temperatures and in the presence of a compound that facilitates the chemical reaction). When hydrogen is involved, it is called hydrocracking, is when water is called steam cracking. 

The reforming to convert naphtha to produce gasoline or premium. 

There are other processes refining as isomerization, alkylation, etc. ... We can thus influence the characteristics of the products obtained (octane, color, odor, volatility ...).

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Distillation

Crude oil is first heated to 370 ° C. It then partially vaporizes and is carried out in a fractionating column (a kind of distillation tower). 

At the top of the column is recovered refinery gas used as fuel on site. It also recovers other petroleum gas such as butane and propane, gasoline and naphtha. The latter is the base compound of the petrochemical industry. Then recovered kerosene (used iFn aviation, the jet engines), diesel and heating oil. Further down the column is recovered residues, which are re-distilled under vacuum to provide heavy fuel oil, lubricants and bitumen. 

In order to obtain specific grades of gasoline (high octane) and reduce the content sulfur diesel fuels, we must also deal with products of distillation.

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Impact of changing technology

Without going into details, we can say that technological advances have enabled:

• to identify new oil fields;
• to exploit new deposits, where old technologies reached their limits;
• increase yields from operations (deposit more exploited, cost less, etc.).
• Technology has accompanied the rise in oil demand, but in recent years the number of discovered deposits has decreased substantially, suggesting that the "Hubbert Peak" is at hand.

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EOR - Enhanced Oil Recovery

When the reservoir pressure is insufficient, we proceed to the injection of fluid (s) to force oil to rise. These fluids may be gas (one of the deposit, or liquefied petroleum gas), or water.

Techniques more advanced (and more energy-intensive), such as thermal methods or fluid drive missible, allow to exploit the deposits difficult.

The thermal method involves heating the oil to the fluid (that is to say, reduce its viscosity). The heat comes from the injection of steam or underground combustion.

The fluid drive missible is performed using carbon dioxide or liquefied petroleum gas, lighter. Finally, chemical methods attempt to limit the capillary that holds the oil in the rocks. This is done using polymers or micro-emulsions of oil, water, alcohols and surfactants.

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Drilling for oil

After the drilling of one exploration well, designed to confirm the presence of oil and other wells are drilled to delineate the deposit. Most wells are drilled using a drill bit, a cutting tool on the end of a set of drill pipe supported by a metal tower called derrick. The drill bit is rotated. The drilling speed varies greatly depending on the nature of the rocks traversed. Of the "drilling mud" (a mixture of clay with water and chemicals) is continuously injected inside the stems. It goes back into the space between the rods and the walls of the well. The mud serves to cool the drill bit and remove the cuttings. Back on the surface, the slurry is filtered and reinjected into the well. Analysis of the debris can qualify the rocks traversed. 

Advances in drilling techniques now allow the completion of drilling small diameter boreholes deviated (obliques), horizontal multidrains, etc ... This progress has allowed the exploitation of deposits that were previously unprofitable, for technical reasons and / or economic. 

For offshore deposits (offshore), is generally used for pumping platform independent. Special ships can be used to exploit deposits of lower capacity.

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Exploration and prospecting for new oil fields

To find oil, we look for sedimentary basins where oil and gas have formed. Gas and oil then had the opportunity to migrate through porous rock capable of holding large quantities. 

In spite of modern tracking techniques (satellite imagery, geophysical, three-dimensional seismic surveys), the discovery of a new deposit is uncertain until the introduction of drilling. Only the latter can confirm the presence of the precious liquid.

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Autonomy of oil reserves

Considering that between 850 and 950 have been consumed Gbl today.

Often given an estimate of oil reserves equivalent to 40 to 60 years of world consumption today is to say slightly less in reality if we take into account the steady rise in consumption, mainly due to the emergence of newly industrialized countries such as China and India. However, the thin oil should lead to an increase in prices, which in turn should limit consumption to the profits of alternative energy sources, fossil fuels (coal, etc.), or renewable. All things considered, it is reasonable to think that we have about 50 years of oil. Remains to be seen at what price ...

It took a century for humanity to consume half of the oil, it will take more than a half to fully deplete the reserves.

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State of the World's Oil Reserves

A simplified figure and relatively speaking: a cube of 7 kilometers from the side, half empty (or half full, it depends), with a leak rate equivalent to the Rhone is the current state of reserves and world oil consumption.

Proven reserves are generally estimated at between 140 and 160 Gt, or 1,050 to 1,200 Gbl. But taking into account technological advances and a recovery rate above 30%, the reserves could reach 266 Gt (or 1'996 GBL). The truth is that the reserves are not well known, and that in addition to proven reserves, it is quite inappropriate to make hypothetical assumptions about the probable reserves and ultimate.

Fairly coarse (and varies according to findings nouvaux oilfields), proven reserves are geographically distributed as follows:

• 55-60% in the Middle East;
• 15-18% in North America;
• 7-8% in Central and South America;
• 6-7% in Eastern Europe and Former Soviet Union;
• 6-8% in Africa;
• 3-5% in Asia and Oceania;
• 1-2% (!) In Western Europe;

I'll let you calculate how many tons or barrels this is by geographic area.

The countries of OPEC account for approximately 75-80% of total world proven reserves. Several sources say, however, that the state reserves of many countries been an overestimate: these optimistic data are primarily used to sit supremacy and economic influence of the major producing countries.

The rise in oil prices led to interest in deposits unconventional oil , such as oil sands, whose operation is known as energy-intensive, highly polluting, and catastrophic for the environment (despite some methods that allow to avoid the creation of open pits).

Global warming also affects some plan to use: the melting of arctic ice led some companies (such as Arctic Oil & Gas Corp) interest in the exploitation of hitherto inaccessible deposits.

Finally, the exploitation of new (types of) deposits appears to be the preferred track to generate more wealth to the detriment of the fight against global warming and more generally the protection of the environment. Or how to cut ever more ardently the branch on which we sit ...

Read More → State of the World's Oil Reserves

The " Hubbert Peak "

King Hubbert, a geologist, is the source of a predictive method that aims to determine when the production of an oil field reaches its peak. More generally, the term refers to the Hubbert Peak when the peak of world oil production is reached, the point at which global oil production begins to decline in a sustainable manner. It is difficult to predict when this phenomenon. The most pessimistic forecasts are between the 2005 and 2015, the most optimistic about 2040. ASPO (Association for the Study of the Peak Oil - the Association for the Study of Peak Oil), composed of experts in geology and ancient geological experts in oil exploration, said that the Hubbert Peak will reached in 2007 worldwide, in 2010 for the Middle East. Peak production is one thing, the increase in consumption is another. If the increase in demand is stronger than that of production, the price increases (the law of supply and demand). Although the price of oil is still largely controlled by the countries of OPEC, this trend will eventually be verified.

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Increased oil production

Improved extraction techniques used to exploit the oil resources that were not before. Economic conditions, including the increase in oil prices, can make the exploitation of certain deposits profitable. These two conditions, supported by a global oil consumption growing rapidly, allowing the increase in oil production. Deposits discovered in 20 or 30 years are not a lot of potential, and continue to operate essentially the old large deposits. The increase in proven oil reserves is therefore that much of probable and possible reserves become proved reserves. 

All this means that the ultimate reserves decreasing gradually and the reduction of reserves tends to s' speed.

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How to increase oil reserves

Since it takes millions or even tens of millions of years to the Earth to form the oil, we can not say that the reserves are extensible. 

If, however, proven reserves correspond to the known deposits that are recovered about 30%, this means that there are several possibilities to increase the proven reserves:

• the discovery of new deposits;
• technical progress, which can be used to exploit known deposits but not accessible;
• Oil prices: some known reserves are not exploited because they are not profitable in the current economic conditions, but may become so if the price of oil increases;
• share prices of oil companies, which is directly related to the reserves they claimed to own, and is therefore likely to be readjusted function economic imperatives of the moment.

The last two possibilities are purely economies or artificial. One thing is certain, if proved reserves are still increasing for some years, they will not rise forever, because the ultimate reserves are not infinite ...

Read More → How to increase oil reserves

Oil reserves decline

Since about 1980, the annual consumption of oil exceeds the capacity of the deposits discovered each year, and no large deposits have been discovered since then. Moreover the oil-producing Middle East, operating in the vast majority of deposits that were discovered there are over 40 years. 

Since 1970, estimates of oil reserves are relatively stable: the rate of consumption time, we frequently felt the exhaustion of reserves to 30 years in the future. However, oil production increased during this period and continues to increase. Growing demand, improved extraction techniques, the rise in oil prices (which determines the profitability and therefore the exploitation of certain deposits or not) allow this increase in production.

We saw the discoveries of new deposits are below the annual consumption. In other words, the proven reserves increase because the probable and possible reserves are decreasing. But the ultimate reserves, they, clearly reduced since the early 1990s, and the pace is accelerating.

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The ultimate reserves of oil

Ultimate reserves represent the total oil reserves may still be used before the end of the oil era. Since the 1970s, they are estimated at the equivalent of about 30 to 40 years at the time of consumption. But with the sharp increase in consumption, the estimate has never been more true than today.

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The non-conventional oil

Some deposits are formed by oil denser, more viscous, such as oil shale, the extra-heavy crude, or tar sands. Their use is often difficult: there must be thin the oil before being able to extract it. Processes to make these types of oil used are numerous and very energy efficient. While some of these deposits are already exploited, the vast majority is unlikely to be that when the price of oil will be high enough to justify it. The reserves of unconventional oil usable (15% of total) are estimated at 600 billion barrels, equivalent to half of the proven resources.

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Future oil fields to discover

Some deposits are still unknown. Of course, it is difficult to predict the number and capabilities. The United States Geological Survey estimated the deposits to about 140 billion tons of crude oil, equivalent current proven reserves (which it can reasonably be regarded as optimistic as the ability of newly discovered deposits tends to decrease).

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The probable and possible reserves of oil

Today, on average only 30% of known deposits of oil is recoverable (this figure can vary greatly). This will probably increase the recovery rate by technical progress, or when economic conditions warrant. Probable reserves are reserves in known deposits that the odds of one day being exploited are at least 50%. Possible reserves are reserves in known deposits whose probability of being exploited one day is 10 to 50%. The development of drilling techniques and recovery, economic conditions are some probable and possible reserves are gradually proved reserves.

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The proven oil reserves

These are reservations that are made up of the known deposits, including oil at least 90% chance of being recovered. Clearly these are reserves that can happen to quantify, and that one is able to operate on technical and economic criteria. Different sources, such as BP Statistical Review, the United States Geological Survey, Oil and Gas Journal, give figures ranging from 1,000 to 1,265 billion barrels, from 140 to 180 billion tons.

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Assessment of oil reserves

The concept of oil reserves is often presented as an ambiguous term, which depends on the known deposits, the deposits to be discovered, technical progress and economic conditions. Of course, the quantification of reserves is subject to very high uncertainty, but it is reasonable to think that the famous " Hubbert Peak "will soon take place, but now we can say that the era of cheap oil is over .

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The oil reserves and depletion

The oil reserves are not infinite, far from it ... It still has a few decades at current rate of consumption, but it is urgent to switch to alternatives. The scarcity of oil will increase its prices, which leaves room for alternatives (if choosing the right ...). Apart from the urgent environmental and climate, how long can we still use massive source of energy?

The state of the world is uncertain, however, have considered that half of the reserves had been consumed (in a century). 

The very concept of "reserves" is poorly defined, it is called "proven" reserves, "probable" "final", etc.., and the ability of deposits currently in operation appears to be currently overvalued, for speculative purposes. 

This portends the rise of a powerful oil shock in the coming decades: the day will come when companies and oil states will no longer hide the truth. In the meantime, however, they shall make a maximum profit of oil resources, by locking access to alternative energy sources, while preparing to replace an energy dependence for another, in order to maintain their hegemony.

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Conclusion of World Oil Consumption

Oil reserves, although they are not well known, are reduced. At the same time, economic development and global population, a consequence of the globalization of markets, leads to exponential energy needs, and a world oil consumption following this trend.

In the absence of audiacieuses policies oil dependence and global warming, only a significant increase in oil prices could help stop the system. 

With major impacts on our civilization:

• impact on mobility ;
• impact on everyday products ( petrochemicals , plastics );
• development of local industries (energy, food production, industrial production);
• impact on the environment: less pollution and nuisance;
• impact on the cost of living: higher prices, especially for food and imported manufactured goods;
• impact on the consumer society: an economic model based on the consumption of disposable and ephemeral will no longer be viable;
• impact of technology: Technology should accompany this change in society and be a full evaluation to avoid problems related to implementation of technologies irrational a prior harmless.

Read More → Conclusion of World Oil Consumption

Links between supply, demand and the price of oil

Oil consumption depends on the price of a barrel of crude. It speaks of elasticity of demand in oil prices . The figures vary according to the sources:

a negative correlation of 1 / 25, that is to say that demand would fall by 1% if the barrel increased by 25%. Given the current trend, we should be able to verify quickly that statistic, though the emergence of China and of India could distort the results;

a $ 10 increase in oil prices would translate into 0.3 points of growth within the next year (I do not know if it is an absolute or relative, if it is absolute, with $ 70 the price per barrel between 2007 and 2008, the recession is just around the nose ...)

an increase of € 10 on the price per barrel would result in an increase of € 0.1 on the price of a liter of fuel at the pump.

The psychological factor also plays a role. In France, nearly a quarter of the population is willing to reduce car use for a fuel price exceeds € 1.50 / L. We are in the thick of it, we will have to begin. In the United States, would be the psychological threshold of $ 3 / gallon, or 0.6 € / L. Play it in the same category ...

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Lack of alternative comparable

The comparable alternatives to oil are scarce. Those with the greatest potential can not substitute for oil as a desire or a need to break with the traditions from oil. This is why biofuels are widely promoted by oil companies: they allow them to maintain control over distribution networks, and a view of the use, biofuels are only one evolution technology. They do not change consumer behavior, and that is what those who want to master the distribution network. 

We will discuss the hydrogen in the same kind of problem distribution (and production, as the ' Hydrogen is an energy carrier, alongside electricity, not an energy source ).

Solutions for production and use of decentralized energy sources, if it can be a viable alternative, are not privileged because they involve a change of habit for suppliers and consumers. If now or in the near future the technology could offer us a new clean energy source and compatible with the uses and modes of current distribution, no doubt it would end unnecessary. But these energy sources do not exist: those who present themselves as such are only decoys touting qualities biased. He "only" generally analyze their filièrse a whole to realize that they are aberrations, or the conditions under which they might actually be (even) a credible alternative (and realize that these conditions are not met).

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The predictions of oil production for the coming decades vary

In parallel, the annual production for 2007 is estimated to 31.2 Gbl, which partly explains the tensions on oil prices: it has barely increased over 2006, or at least its increase was less than the increase in consumption. The countries of OPEC accounted for 41.9% of global oil production in 2007. More in the report of the DIREM on the world oil market .

The application is now structurally very similar to the offer, or even slightly higher. Some believe that world oil production is now reaching its peak. 

Other forecasts, such as the IEA (which, remember, represents the interests of energy consuming countries) say that global production could reach 116 Mbl / d in 2030. 

Meanwhile, total production is forecast to level off up to 100 Mbl / d by 2020. 

Dr. Sadad Al-Husseini, former president of Aramco (the national oil company Saudi) , notes that oil production begins to stagnate in many parts of oil, while others have already begun their decline. It is estimated that world production will not exceed 70 Mbl / d in 2030.

The United States alone still account for 25% of world oil consumption. But Asia represents the largest share (70%) of the increase in consumption (China alone accounts for half of the increase in Asian consumption).

Read More → The predictions of oil production for the coming decades vary

Inventory of world oil consumption

Between 1859 and 1968, humanity has consumed 200 billion barrels of oil. Today, it consumes more than 30 billion barrels per year (that is to say, 13 billion liters per day!).

Despite oil prices that is increasing world consumption of oil always follows a rise.

The global oil demand for 2007 is estimated by the IEA to 85.8 Mbl / d, 31.3 Gbl for the entire year: it Gbl 0.37 from 2006. For 2008, expected to reach 32 Gbl, an increase of 2.3% over 2007. However the forecast for 2008 is uncertain due to global economic conditions (recession due to among other subprime crisis ).

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The many petroleum products

Crude oil, when refined, produces many products, for energy purposes or not. This specificity has allowed the parallel development of industry, transport and (petro) chemical. Technical progress and market development of these industries have created an ever increasing demand for oil. The various outlets are the source of this demand growth, which accelerated the development of transmission and distribution of oil. The end of this financial windfall variety of applications justified the huge investment required by the establishment of networks of mining, transport, processing, storage and distribution of petroleum products.

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The high energy density of oil

Oil provides a large energy density. In other words, this means that low volume is a significant amount of energy. One kilogram of oil (oil type) is used to provide approximately 11.6 kWh of energy, about 10 kWh per liter. These are very high values.

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Oil is a fluid

Oil is a liquid. It sounds stupid like that, yet it is an undeniable quality: more practical to extract, transport, storage and use, as opposed to a solid. A liquid is more convenient than a gas, particularly in regard to the problem of leakage and the behavior at room temperature. We can transfer it easily. Of course, these benefits are not unique to oil, they are valid for any energy carrier liquid.

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The advantages of oil

Oil is a chemical and energy resource that has accompanied and catalyzed the technological development of humanity. It is also a leading cause of major ecological disaster looming: the global warming . Yet despite its polluting, oil has advantageous features that make it an energy source of choice when not ready to guard its drawbacks.

Oil is an energy practice, which there are many possibilities, through physical and chemical characteristics extraordinary.

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Oil Today

Oil remains one of the pillars of global economic system. The industrialized countries are highly dependent on consumers and the resource, they have rarely or in insufficient quantities in their territories. This mismatch between producers and consumers of oil resources is a source of geopolitical tensions that sometimes lead to armed conflict. Every industrialized country is seeking to satisfy his greedy in trying to secure oil supplies abroad. Recent history shows that some nations are prepared to having recourse to more extreme solutions for control of oil fields. And it's probably just the beginning: the consumption is increasing, and the arrival of Hubbert Peak (peak oil) is imminent. The emergence of newly industrialized countries (NICs) such as China and India maintain demand while supply is struggling to keep (some deposits are depleted or running low).

With demand will remain strong and has an offer that will tend to stagnate or even decline in the coming decades, the price of oil is expected to increase from current levels. Then it will tend to stabilize at a high price (very clever one who can predict the level of the award), along with a request that will stagnate. The rising price of oil makes some tracks technology - alternative to oil-field exploitation difficult - economically viable, and leads to a general rise in prices of other fossil fuels, for reasons still justified by (speculation) .

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The oil shocks

In 1960, the main oil-producing countries are the OPEC to defend their interests and against oil prices on a downward trend. Today, the role of OPEC is still important in establishing the price of a barrel. 

The geopolitical situation in several oil producing regions evolves sometimes unstable, and in 1973 it was the first oil shock . In France, this period coincides with the strong development of the park power , decided only a few years earlier by President De Gaulle. In parallel, the actions of energy control are carried out (the cutting waste , and the establishment of the time change , which should help to reduce energy consumption). In 1979, the second oil shock . In 1982, the situation stabilizes again, and it is gradually entering a new era of "cheap oil". Many projects using alternative energy sources , launched during periods of oil shocks, will be stopped prematurely due to lack of economic competitiveness (plant solar and geothermal , etc.). Since the early 2000s, prices rising again. Most experts now think it's the end of cheap oil and that oil prices will be subject to a sustained rise. Some alternative technologies gradually revert to the mode ( wind , solar , wood energy and biomass ), by financial incentive mechanisms, and economic appeal against a barrel more expensive. 

In late 2007, the price of a barrel of Crude briefly surpassed the psychological threshold of $ 100. But today we talk about ending the era of cheap oil, not an oil crisis . It's all about action and choice semantics. The fact is that since March 2008, oil seems to remain above the $ 100 / bl. 

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The abundance of oil

During the XX th century, the rapid development of chemistry (the 1930s), and the exponential growth of the automotive market (after the Second World War ), are caught in the oil capital importance in the global economic system. The oil offers certain advantages over its direct competitors ( fuelwood , charcoal , city gas ): a high energy density , transportation, storage and easy use, and plenty that makes it possible to have low cost. This abundance accompanies economic development 30 years after the war (the " thirty glorious years "). During this period, the issues of depletion of reserves and environmental issues are completely incidental or non-existent, unlike those of the energy dependence , which leads the industrialized countries to develop alternative pathways (in fact, only nuclear power is actually developed for strategic purposes - military, etc.).

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To industrial use of oil

The Industrial Revolution led to the development of new products and new technologies. Towards the end of the Industrial Revolution (late XIX th century), the use of oil is still quite marginal, but interest in this resource is growing. 

In 1852, Abraham Gesner invented kerosene , an inexpensive and fuel good for lighting. In 1855, Benjamin Silliman , publish a list of the range of products that can be obtained by distillation of petroleum . 

Initially used mainly in raw form for lighting (in oil lamps ), the gradual increase in demand and the emergence the combustion engine drives the development of new forms of oil better. 

Therefore, it conducts research to locate the various oil fields , and conducted the first underground drilling in Germany in 1857. Two years later, it was the beginning of the black gold rush. 

The August 30, 1859, in Titusville, Pennsylvania, "Colonel" Edwin Drake drilled the first wells oil producer. This is the United States was born really the oil industry modern, already led by financial and indutriels looking for quick profit. From January 1870, John R. Rockefeller founded the Standard Oil and makes sure 95% of the world oil market. Production so concentrated in the United States to other countries swarms through the action of the oil companies U.S.. More information about the history of the oil industry here . 

The use of oil remains despite modest before the beginning of XX th century. Second, world oil consumption is exploding, supported by advances in chemistry (especially that of the petrochemical ) and development of the automotive market and the internal combustion engine . 

Even in the years 1930-1940, oil production is essentially American, it is only then that we discover the presence of large deposits in the Middle East.

Read More → To industrial use of oil

The beginnings of the use of oil

At the beginning of its use by humans, mainly came from oil deposits on the surface. Already in the ancient times it was used as a source of energy in the form of bitumen for waterproofing (including boats), and even as medicine. 

In the Middle Ages , the Byzantines and the Venetians have made homemade bombs filled with terra-cotta oil and saltpetre that were formidable weapons (the " Greek fire ", which were a nightmare for sailors).

However, at that time, the use of oil is still relatively localized. Only the surface deposits are exploited. Applications of oil remain marginal.

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General information on oil

The oil is a liquid natural brown, more or less viscous. It is a mixture of hydrocarbons , compounds of carbon and to hydrogen only. Conventional oil contains other elements in varying proportions (usually around 15%). We can find traces of sulfur , of nitrogen , of oxygen , the metal ( iron , nickel ...) and the salt water .

The origin of the word comes from the Latin petra oleum (rock oil), because it was considered as such. 

Today, oil is everywhere: chemistry , energy , food. It has long been used by humans, but its dominance is relatively recent.

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Only the price of a barrel can make a difference

Finally, one of the factors determining the conversion of our society "all oil" to another, the price of oil. By itself it synthesizes the voltage on the supply and demand, speculation in financial markets and oil companies, depletion, etc.. And it is clear that the era of cheap oil is over ... The following chart, which shows the change in the price of a barrel of oil (almost in real time ...) is quite revealing ...

After passing the $ 145 in July 2008, the price per barrel is gradually decreased to a more "natural" for this period (110-120 dollars if you follow the trend observed in recent years). It is likely that cepdendant continues to rise, with occasional oscillations (increases or decreases on fast enough). 

The financial crisis of autumn 2008, with his fears - probably justified - a recession for months (years? ) coming also pushes the price of oil. The consequence of a recession is a probable reduction in world consumption, the price per barrel unscrews so comparable to the indices ... After the strong artificial increase comes the sharp decline ... 

These are the same speculative reasons that explain the increases and excessive declines in the price of a barrel of oil ... This trend will reverse anyway in the coming months: in fact, it's not the price per barrel decline that is the amplitude of the oscillations increases ... This is a consequence of capitalism outrageous that lives only in (to) speculation. We hope that the current crisis makes it possible to do the cleaning in our parody of the economic system, and start on a sound basis (we can dream ...). Meanwhile, no change in the system is to be expected a gradual increase in oil prices, punctuated with jolts of high amplitude ...

Ultimately, it is likely that the price of oil caps, depending on various parameters including the volume of consumption and depletion of reserves: reserves are depleted, which imply higher prices and increased prices resulted in lower consumption ... A drop in consumption leads to lower prices ... 

very clever one that comes to anticipate the level of the ceiling, you can read anything and everything about it (proof that the economy n ' is not a science but an insignificant bunch of Game Statistics, which only serves to manipulate the markets ...). In this context, I can tell myself that the numbers are less reliable than others (they are based on a rule of thumb analysis of the statistical results of a scientific experiment of throwing darts), "ultimately, the price of a barrel of Oil will stabilize at a level 150 to $ 200, with an increased likelihood around $ 180. " That's it. All this will happen between 2020 and 2100, most likely around 2040.

But you do not have to believe me ...

Read More → Only the price of a barrel can make a difference

Oil, this energy source (but not only) that dominates our economy

The oil is a source of energy indispensable today. It is present everywhere as fuel , fuel and raw material sought for industry (petro) chemical and plastics industry .

However, this hegemony is relatively recent, since the use of oil for industrial purposes is the end of the XVIII th century, to really prevail during the XX th century with the rise of the automobile and chemical synthetic).

Oil and its uses have led to a rapid technological development during the XX th century, and many people who think that without oil, it would not have been the same. The fact is that oil was a source of hydrocarbons abundant, convenient and easily marketable. Number of its derivatives can now be synthesized from other natural resources, even renewable. But the chemical industry have long focused on oil and its derivatives , at the expense of " green chemistry "and renewable resources sectors that must now catch up after decades of neglect.

Industrial development was largely based on oil, mainly for practical reasons and market opportunity. Today we realize the consequences of that choice, and yet it is slow to implement the alternatives . Ill-will and a vision of short-term profits. It is true that it is difficult to counter the financial power of multinational oil companies that work almost openly with the despotic regimes that enjoy the presence of oil on their territory, and who are willing to defend their interests in large reinforcement of corruption, disinformation, and powerful political lobbies. 

In fact, the main disadvantage of oil is probably his incredible dominance in the global economy, the fact that it is so ingrained in our culture we imagine that industrial hardly do without. So much so that many believe that there is no alternative viable. The depletion , however, show that they exist, but this time it will be too late to do ... and other technologies and energy sources will not be virtuous gained ground: the economic power of large tankers allows them to influence policies and best wishes to impose solutions that settle at the expense of environmental protection.

Read More → Oil, this energy source (but not only) that dominates our economy

Offshore oil and gas

 

Definition and Categories

The term "offshore" means "far from the coast" in English. Exploitation of hydrocarbons, oil and / or gas , is called "offshore" when in the open sea and is operated from platforms, fixed or floating anchored to the seabed

 

Platform supports the devices required for various phases of drilling and extraction of hydrocarbons and sometimes equipment to ensure a human presence on board. Some platforms also help transform the oil extracts so they are easier to carry. Moreover, it is possible to store them temporarily on floating units.

 

Technical or scientific operation

The process to exploit hydrocarbon deposits involves several sequential steps.

 

Earthquake Research deposits

One or more seismic vessels pull behind a series of air guns. They unload suddenly compressed air at high pressure in the marine environment in order to cause a seismic wave propagating into the subsoil. Depending on the type of rock encountered, these waves are more or less thought out and back faster or slower surface. These echoes are then detected by ultrasensitive microphones most often learned, too, by the seismic vessel.Computer processing can render a synthetic image in three dimensions distinguishing the different forms but also the geological nature of rocks, their porosity or fluids they contain.

 

The exploration phase

When a deposit is found, engineers use a floating platform. Usually equipped with a derrick (tower supporting the drilling of an oil well) and a drill bit (drill bit cone to break rocks), it is used to perform the drill floor Marine. It checks if there is enough oil in the tank to begin its operation. To control the pressure, is injected into the drilling rig by a "mud" dense that also trace the debris on the surface and cool the drill bit. After several weeks, the valves are adjusted wellhead and the floating platform is towed by vessels on another website. If the deposit is considered viable, a production platform or exploitation is built on land and towed to the site.

 

The exploitation phase

The tubes or hoses to go back to oil wells are connected to. A series of valves and gauges (instrument for measuring pressure) is then used to refine more precisely the desired flows.After several years of operation, the pressure starts to decline in the well. We then introduce another fluid under pressure in a well device. This liquid, often water, has a role to push the remaining oil up and allow to complete the operation.

 

The BOP (BOP wells) is a set of valves placed on the head of a wellbore. It is the security instrument allowing plug the well in case of extreme pressure from the reservoir to prevent leakage of oil.

 

Issues in relation to energy

If offshore presents a major potential, it is nevertheless exposed to significant issues in terms of cost and safety.

 

An oil carrier

In 2008, globally, it is estimated that 1 / 5th of oil reserves and over 40% of gas reserves from the seabed. In 2008, the French Oil Institute (IFP) said that offshore oil exploitation has provided 30% of global oil production and 27% of world gas production. Offshore is one of the few areas of access to new reserves of hydrocarbons with the exception of Canada's oil sands or shale gas Americans. Terrestrial reserves are mostly operated by national companies producing states like Saudi Arabia, Russia or Mexico. So in areas offshore that oil companies have achieved most of their major discoveries.

 

Technical and financial constraints

Drilling, it is operated using ships, fixed or mobile platforms, costs several times (3-4 times) the price of more expensive drilling on land. Generally, operation offshore is more expensive, partly because the deep sea exploration, but also complicates the operation of wells drilled.

 

Major players

Technology investments needed to exploit offshore remaining particularly expensive, only the majors (Total, Chevron, Exxon Mobil, Shell and BP) share the market among private companies.

 

However, they must now deal more with domestic companies producing countries such as Petrobras in Brazil. These companies, however, often depend on technology majors.

 

According to the U.S. Energy Information Administration, the national companies in 2007 controlled 52% of production and 88% of proven offshore resources.

 

Measurement Units and key figures

The share of the production of marine origin in the total world production of oil, which accounted for 10% (110 Mt) in 1960 rose to 30% in 2008 ⁽¹⁾ .

In 2008, offshore operations provided 30% of global oil production and 27% of world gas production from the French Petroleum Institute (IFP).

The seabed to contain more than 70 million km2 of sedimentary basins with at least 30 million km ² in more than 50 m of water.

The evolution of operating depths has been a gradual

 

• depth of 300 meters (considered deepwater) was achieved with the Cognac field in the Gulf of Mexico In 1979;
• depth of 1000 meters was completed in Brazil in the field south of Marlin in 1994;
• depth of 2000 meters was reached in the Gulf of Mexico Canyon Express project with the scope Aconcagua 2002;
• depth of 2200 meters was reached in offshore Brazil with the Tupi field in 2007.

Attendance area or application

Currently, there are oil exploration in the following regions:

• North Sea, located in Great Britain, Norway, Netherlands, Denmark;
• Persian Gulf;
• Gulf of Guinea such as Gabon and Nigeria; China Sea in the territorial waters of Vietnam, Malaysia and China;
• Mediterranean Sea, mainly off the coasts of North Africa;
• Caspian Sea;
• Coast of Brazil, whose huge Tupi field discovered in 2007;
• Gulf of Mexico along the U.S. coasts and in the Bay of Campeche (Mexico);
• Northwest coast and south-eastern Australia;
• Coast of Malaysia, Brunei and parts of the Indonesian archipelago;
• Canadian Atlantic coast, off Newfoundland (Hibernia, White Rose).

Past and present

In the aftermath of the Second World War, drilling in waters have increased more or less deep. In 1947, the first field began operation in the Gulf of Mexico. In 1973, the first oil shock has really boosted the offshore oil industry and many platforms have come into operation in the North Sea. Oil extracted in the seabed have become an alternative to dependence on Middle East.

 

This strategy proved successful, as it has uncovered many concerns, including the two largest fields discovered over the last twenty years, all categories: the Kashagan deposit, in the territorial waters of Kazakhstan Caspian Sea and, more recently, as Tupi, in the Santos Basin offshore Brazil.

 

Future

A compelling alternative

Despite the bad image caused by human or environmental accidents such as that of the platform "Deep Water, Horizon, offshore oil development seems inevitable. Representing nearly a fifth of oil reserves and 40% of gas reserves , offshore fields have become a necessity to meet global energy needs.

 

Security issues could change all that

Security issues are at the heart of development strategies offshore. Indeed the major accidents are often followed by human or environmental consequences very important. The crash of the Piper Alpha platform (explosion in 1988) has killed 167 people. The oil rig "Deep Water Horizon" suffered a violent explosion in the spring of 2010 leaving escape 5000 barrels per day, or 800,000 m ³ of oil. Well aware that what happened to one could happen to other players, oil companies and oil services are all impacted by the accident. This often results in the strengthening of security procedures and therefore the rising costs of operation.

 

Did you know?

The smallest country in the world is not the Vatican but the Principality of Sealand is located at sea about 10 miles from British shores. He is a former UK platform abandoned and located in territorial waters. In 1967, the era of pirate radio, a man named Roy Bates took over this island and declared as an independent nation with its own currency, flag and anthem. Issuing passports of many for several years, the Principality of Sealand illustrates the possibilities offered schedules the conversion of an oil platform. The website The Piracy Bay follower of the exchange of files uploaded recently in 2007 indeed tried to buy the island to set up its headquarters and take advantage of more flexible legislation.

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Ratio of water to oil (OWR)

Oil / water ratio Is A number Representing The fraction of liquid oil basis and Water in the mud. In general, It Is a Relationship Between The percent oil in The Liquid Phase And The percent water in liquid phase.

 

 

The Number Can Be Determined by autoclaving samples of mud.

 

We Can OWR calculate this equation as per below :

 

Percent oil in liquid phase = 100x % by vol ÷ of oil (% by vol of oil +% by vol of water )

 

Percent water in liquid phase = 100x % by vol of water ÷ (% by vol of oil +% by vol of water )

 

Can you learn more about oil water ratio (LWR) calculation from drillingformulas.com > Calculate Water Oil Ratio

 

This figure is very vital Because it tells us How Much Water in the mud . If You Have Deviated from excessive water mud WAS specification , You Will Have Problems SEVERAL face with high PV , YP high , high pressure pumping , fluid bad property loss ,etc. . Because Water in the oil base mud Will act like solids . What's more, as you know water and oil are not compatible with each other so when water is added into the system ,you must add emulsifiers to maintain a solid emulsion in the mud .

 

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Advantages of oil-based mud

mud is oil based drilling mud which has oil as the external phase. mud is oil based invert emulsion because the external phase is oil and the internal phase is water. Water oil ratio range of 50% oil: water 50% oil 95% to 5% water. Currently, many operators prefer to use oil-based mud instead of water based mud .

 

 

You may wonder why the oil companies nowadays many use this type of mud.Regardless, I summarize it for you.

• The oil-based mud is good for the environment at high temperature, because the base fluid is oil.

• It is good for drilling in the shale formation, because it does not react with clay formation leading to an unstable shale.

• It usually creates sludge cake cutting. It's really good because you can reduce the risk for pipe stalemate.

• It can be treated and reused. Through the mud for long term may reduce the overall cost of drilling muds.

• Base oil as the external phase is so good lubricant significantly reduce drilling torque.

• It is good to use in some areas where you're faced with the problem hydrate such as drilling in deep water.

• Generally, when drilling mud base oil dipstick hole can be easily achieved.

 

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The disadvantages of oil based mud

As you know there are several companies using oil-based mud for drilling in many parts of the world. Even if the mud system has several advantages over water base mud, it still has some drawbacks that you should consider before using it.

 

 

The disadvantages of oil based mud are:

The environmental concern - the oil-based mud is considered a toxic waste can not be eliminated directly in the ground, river, or ocean. You really need to take special precautions when using it. Many governments do not allow the oil companies that do not have proper waste management during the drilling mud oil based.

 

People Heath - This mud has dangerous fumes causing health problem for staff working with her, both short and long term. In addition, staff required for the proper use of PPE and crew protection in order to handle because of the mud-based oil can irritate the skin of the worker.

 

Cost - The cost of the system sludge is higher than the water based mud in terms of cost per barrel.

 

detection of gas blow - Blow gas is very difficult to identify because the gas is soluble in oil. You can take off, but you will be able to see an increase in the gain of pits or debit the first time. When the gas is suddenly moved up because of traffic, you'll suddenly gain pit, and increase the flow due to gas expansion.

 

Clean - It's pretty hard to keep equipment clean during the drilling mud oil based. Staff need to take more time and effort to clean the area where the mud is oil based.

 

Equipment - Rubber parts is easily degraded by the base oil. Therefore, staff should be checked regularly rubber parts exposed to the mud that the rubber hoses, expansion joints, etc..

 

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Base fluid oil-based mud

Before going into details of oil-based mud , the first thing that needs to discuss is the base fluid in oil-based mud. The base fluid is the continuous phase of oil, the main component of the system emulsion drilling mud around. In general, the base fluid will not react with the clay so you can not cope with the problem of swelling clay. With this advantage, many companies like to use oil-based mud as it is very good for drilling in the shale formation.

 

Today, there are several base fluids used in the drilling industry such as mineral oil, synthetic oil and diesel . I go to the details of each base fluid in future issues. Criteria on how to select appropriate base fluids are based on these criteria: economic performance drilling, rules and regulations of each area, and accessibility. Since the base fluids are toxic, many parts of the world will not allow the use because of environmental concerns. Some countries allow the use of oil based mud, so oil companies have a good waste management plan such as zero discharge,, disposal plan, etc. while operating the drilling operation. In addition, some areas may allow operators to fulfill some oil on the reduction in the ocean.You must respect the rules and regulations of each zone.

 

Before going into details of each base fluid, I want to describe the basic properties of fluid that you should consider when selecting the base fluid to your oil-based mud.

 

To the point - is the temperature that each liquid stops flowing. Ideally, the fluid must have a good basic low pour point as much as possible. Typically, if your state of drilling is not cold, you will not face this issue. However, if you drill where the climate is very cold in Alaska, Russia, etc., you must be very careful with regard to sink. Another condition drilling you have to look carefully at the pour point of the base fluid in operating in deep waters where the well temperature is very cold.

 

Viscosity - Simply put, it is an internal resistance of the fluid flow. The higher the viscosity of base fluid is, the more pressure is needed to move it. You must select the base fluid viscosity low as it can be.

 

Flashpoint - the temperature is that the base fluid may vaporize to form a mixture ignited in the atmosphere. For safe operation, the flash point should be higher than the maximum temperature under a flow line.

 

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Diesel fuel as the base fluid oil-based mud

Diesel oil has been widely used as a base fluid for oil based mud in the past because it is cheap. However, currently the use of IT has diminished since it is not environmentally friendly. There are toxic aromatic compounds, nitrogen, and sulfur have very bad impact on the environment. In addition, the aromatic compounds in diesel fuel take very long to biodegrade. As far as I know, many places in the world Committee fluid based diesel.

 

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Mineral oil base fluid oil-based mud

In the previous post, we discuss the base fluid as diesel oil-based mud but there are several drawbacks to using it. Therefore, some operators choose to use mineral oilinstead.

Mineral oil or liquid petroleum gas is a byproduct of the distillation of petroleum to produce gasoline vehicle. It contains a lower concentration of nitrogen and aromatics than diesel.The mineral oil consists of several types of paraffin as straight-chain type, branched and cycloparaffin type.

From a performance stand drilling, many places around the world have shown that mineral oil has better performance drilling fluid based diesel . However, mineral oil biodegradation was very slow because of its branched and cyclic molecules.

 

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