Drilling Fluid Functions

The following is the function of Drilling Fluid: 

1. Cool the drill bit and lubricates its teeth: one of the prime functions of the drilling fluid or mud is to cool the drill bit and lubricate its teeth. The drilling action requires a considerable amount of mechanical energy in the form of weight on bit, rotation, and hydraulic energy. A large proportion of this energy is dissipated as heat, which must be remove to allow the drill bit to function properly, the drilling mud also helps the removing of the rock cuttings from the space between the bit teeth, thereby preventing bit balling which is one of the common problems in drilling process. 
2. Lubricates and cool the drillstring: a rotary drillstring generates a considerable amount of heat which must be dissipated outside the hole. The drilling mud helps to cool the drillstring by absorbing the heat and releasing it, by convection and radiation, to air surrounding the surface mud tanks (pits). The mud also, provides lubrication by reducing friction between drillstring and borehole walls. Lubrication is usually achieved by the addition of bentonite, oil, graphite, etc.
3. Control formation pressure: for safe drilling, high formation pressure must be contained within the hole to prevent damage to equipment and injury to personnel. The drilling mud achieves this by providing a hydrostatic pressure just greater than the formation pressure. For effective drilling, the difference between the hydrostatic pressure and formation pressure should be zero. the hydrostatic pressure depends on the mud weight which, in turn, depends on the type of solids added to the fluid making up the mud and the density of the continuous phase. In practice, an overbalance,(Where the pressure in the wellbore in higher than the pressure in the formation), 100 to 200 psi (trip margin) is normally used to provide an adequate safe guard against well kick. The pressure overbalance sometimes referred to as chip hold down pressure (CHDP), and its value directly influences penetration rate. In general, penetration rate decreases as (CHDP) increases. When an abnormally pressured formation is encountered, the (CHDP) becomes negative and sudden increase in penetration rate is observed. This is normally taken as an indication of a well kick.
4. Carry cuttings out of the hole: for effective drilling, cuttings generated by the bit must be removed immediately. The drilling mud carries these cuttings up the hole and to the surface, to be separated from the mud. The removal of cuttings depends on the viscous properties called "Yield Point" which influences the carrying capacity of the flowing mud and "gels" which help to keep the cuttings in suspension when the mud is static to prevent them from accumulating on the bottom of the hole and causing pipe sticking. The flow rate of mud is also critical in cleaning the hole.
5. Stabilize the wellbore and prevent it from caving in: the formation of a good mud cake helps to stabilize the walls of plaster to interior walls (like plastering a room walls to keep them from flaking). The pressure differential between hydrostatic pressure of mud and that of the wellbore stable. Shale stability is largely dependent on the type of mud used To minimise the swelling stresses caused by the reaction of the mud with the shale formations. This reaction can cause hole erosion or cavings resulting in an unstable wellbore. Minimisation of wellbore instability is provided by the "inhibition" character of the drilling mud.. At last it should be noted that the best way to keep a hole stable is to reduce time during which the hole is kept open.
6. Helps in the evaluation and interpretation of well logs: wire line logs are run in mud-fills holes in order to ascertain the existence and size of hydrocarbons zones. Open hole logs are also run to determine porosity, boundaries between formations, location of geopressured (or abnormally pressured) formations and the site for the next well. Hence, the drilling mud must possess such properties that it will aid the production of good logs (Log response may be enhanced through selection of specific fluids and conversely, use of a given fluid may eliminate a log from use. Drilling fluids must be evaluated to assure compatibility with the logging program).
7. Limiting the corrosion of drilling equipment: the drilling mud in most cases will have water that contains dissolved salts as its base liquid. This serves as a medium in which corrosion takes place. If corrosion is suspected, then the cause should be determined and steps taken to prevent damage of the equipment. It has been found that in muds containing oil as the continuous phase, little or no corrosion occurs.
8. Transmit Hydraulic Horsepower to Bit: Hydraulic horsepower generated at the bit is the result of flow volume and pressure drop through the bit nozzles. This energy is converted into mechanical energy which removes cuttings from the bottom of the hole and improves the rate of penetration.

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What worker doing during Drilling Operation?

During drilling, the personnel and equipment must be protected against unexpected pressure surges in the wellbore. In oil and gas drilling, these surges can come from hydrocarbon fluids trapped under impermeable rock which holds them at pressures higher than the static head of the fluid column in the wellbore, and in geothermal operations the surges come from hot formations which heat the pore or wellbore fluids above the saturation temperature at the static wellbore pressure. In either case, the first line of control is the weight of the fluid column in the wellbore. 

With a gas column, this weight is negligible, but with mud the liquid density will range from slightly greater than water (-8.5 pounds per gallon) to almost three times that. In addition to the clays and additives which raise the viscosity of the mud to improve hole cleaning, weighting materials such as barite are often added to increase the mud's density and enable it to control higher downhole pressures.

The pressure surge cannot immediately be controlled with fluid weight, the wellbore can be mechanically sealed at the surface with BOPS, or blow-out preventers. There are three principal types of BOP: blind rams, which are sliding plates that come together across the wellbore when the drill string is not in the hole; pipe rams, which are like blind rams except that the sliding plates are cut out in the center so the rams can seal around the drill pipe; and an annular preventer, which is an inflatable bladder that seals around drill collars, stabilizers, or other off-size or irregularly shaped tools.

Read More → What worker doing during Drilling Operation?

Geothermal Drilling with Kelly Rig

To make the hole or drilling well with kelly rig, energy must be transmitted from the surface to the rock face at the end of the wellbore. Power supply for drilling has evolved from the early days of steam-driven,mechanically coupled rigs to the current standard of diesel-electric drive. In this configuration, two to four diesel engines (up to 2,000 horsepower each) drive electric generators, which supply power to individual electric motors driving the rotary table, drawworks, mua pumps, and other equipment. The rotary table is a mechanism, usually inset into the rig floor, which turns the drill string to break rock and advance the hole. (A "drill string" comprises the drill pipe plus the bottom-hole-assembly, or BHA. The BHA includes drill collars, stabilizers, bit, and any other specialized tools below the drill pipe).

Hole diameters in oil and gas drilling usually range fiom 4 to 26 inches, while geothermal holes generally have a minimum production size of 8-112 inches. To drill these holes, torque is applied to the kelly, which is at the top of the drill string. The kelly is a section of pipe with a square or hexagonal outside cross-section which engages a matching bushing in the rotary table. This bushing lets the rotary table continuously turn the kelly and drill string while they slide downward as the hole advances.

The upper end of the kelly is attached to a 'hvivel", which is a rotating pressure fitting that allows the drilling fluid to flow fiom the mud pumps, up the standpipe, through the kelly hose, into the swivel, and finally down the drill pipe as it rotates. The swivel is carried by the hook on the traveling block and it suspends most of the weight of the drill string while drilling.

Moving the drill string or the casing into and out of the hole is called tripping. Trips are usually required because the bit or some other piece of downhole equipment must be replaced, or because of some activity such as logging, testing, or running casing, and of course trips take longer as the hole grows deeper. Raising or lowering the drill string for a trip is done by the drawworks, which is basically a large winch. (The swivel and kelly are almost always handled as a unit, and are set aside in the "rat hole" while tripping.) The drawworks reels in or pays out a wire rope (drilling line) which passes over the crown block at the top of the rig's mast and then down to the traveling block which carries the hook, which in turn suspends the drill string or casing. Depending on what mechanical advantage is required, the drilling line is reeved several times between the crown and traveling blocks, as in a block and tackle.

Read More → Geothermal Drilling with Kelly Rig

Solids Control Innovations To North American Shale Fields

While the last year has seen a ramping up of onshore drilling in shale fields across North America, it’s clear that “caution” still remains the watchword when it comes to drilling and production budgets.

Anadarko, ConocoPhillips and Hess already have announced reductions in 2017 E&P budgets, and in the words of Anadarko CEO R.A. Walker, “We sincerely believe the volatility of the current operating market requires financial discipline.”

Such volatility and the focus from shale operators and drilling contractors on financial discipline, reduced costs and increased efficiencies is shining the spotlight on a key sector of the drilling market—solids control.

Drilling fluids play a crucial role in drilling activity in shale fields, cooling and lubricating drillbits, carrying drill cuttings to the surface, controlling pressure at the bottom of the well and ensuring that the formation retains the properties defined for that well.

The effectiveness of such fluids is highly dependent on solids control and the ability to separate the mud from rock particles and low-gravity solids so that clean mud is recycled and circulated back into the drilling system. If there are too many solids in the mud, ROP is reduced, and torque, drag and abrasion are increased as well as potential lost circulation and production.

The more capable the drilling rigs and the better the solids control technologies, the greater the drilling efficiencies and levels of potential production.

Current technology limitations

Shale shakers separate drill cuttings by passing the muds through a shale screen with separation achieved by vibrations and high G-forces. But there are limitations to these devices.

First, there is the capex and opex required for the shale shakers—not a one-off cost but a drag on finances throughout operations due to the need for the shale screens to be continually replaced.

There also is more onsite equipment, personnel, and greater costs and HSE risk.

Also, there are the inefficiencies of the shale shaker-based process itself.

The drilled solids are often broken down into fine particles that are difficult to remove, leading to an increase in solids in the drilling fluid, a decline in drilling fluid efficiency and a negative impact on penetration rates and equivalent circulating density.

Another downside of vibrating-type shale shakers is higher volumes of mud being lost and more drilling waste generated. One industry guru working for a major operator once said that 15% of all the mud used per well is lost in some form or another via the shakers.

Viable alternative

It’s with these issues in mind that Cubility’s filter beltbased MudCube technology is proving an effective alternative to shale shakers in shale fields.

The MudCube is an enclosed vacuum-based system that eliminates the traditional process of shaking fl uid and solids. Instead, drilling fl uids are vacuumed through a rotating filter belt that uses high airfl ow to separate the cuttings from the fl uid.

The cleaned drilling fl uids are then returned to the active mud system, and the drilled solids are carried forward on the filter belt for disposal. As opposed to shakers, the MudCube processes 100% of the mud, immediately increasing performance.

The system also eliminates the need for multiple shaker panels, with the solids removal efficiency also ensuring that as much as 80% more mud is recovered than competing technologies, which is a huge benefit when multiplied by several onshore rigs.

The improved separation capabilities of the MudCube also lead to better quality drilling fluid, more drilling fluid recycled back to the mud tanks to be reused for drilling, less waste and improved drilling efficiencies with stable drilling fl uid properties and a decrease in nonproductive time.

There are also the financial benefits of avoiding screen replacements on a regular basis—filter belts need replacing but not at such fast rates.

In addition, the MudCube is a much more compact alternative to shale shakers. A typical three-deck shaker weighs about 3 metric tons compared to 1 ton for the MudCube.

Deployments across North America

The MudCube’s easy installation on drilling pads is ensuring that it can impact the bottom line almost immediately.

In 2016 Cubility partnered with EQT Corp., and the MudCubes were successfully deployed to an onshore fl uid rig that was drilling Marcellus wells in western Pennsylvania. Cuttings were easily lifted out of the wellbore, leading to immediately improved solids control and waste disposal.

The MudCube also has been successfully deployed for Murphy Oil in Canada, and the company is evaluating the service for possible use in the Eagle Ford Shale as well.

New Tech Solids Inc. and the MudCube delivered dry cuttings with Murphy Oil in Canada. (Source: Cubility)

Mending the broken value chain

Cubility also is looking to contractor partnerships and offering the MudCube as a rentable system to enable contractors to embrace the latest solids control innovations and address the broken value chain where operators drive down day rates, leaving contractors with little scope for new equipment.

To this end Cubility is partnering with Houston-based Stage 3 Separation in providing a modular, easy and inexpensive installation and operation of MudCube, a system specifically designed for onshore shale operations and that can be up and running in a matter of days as an integrated part of the rig design.

It’s through exclusive distribution partnerships such as this and also with Canadian-based New Tech Solids Inc. (a recent deployment is taking place with Shell via New Tech Solids) that the next few years is likely to see more and more MudCubes deployed across North American shale fields through these service providers.

In today’s tight but ultrafast land drilling market, any solids control solution must provide immediate “wins” in terms of reduced costs and increased efficiencies. Vacuum and filter belt-based enclosed solid control systems are achieving this. 

Read More → Solids Control Innovations To North American Shale Fields

DRILLMEC PRESENTS HOD, NEW SYSTEM FOR CONTINUOUS FLUID CIRCULATION

Continuous flow of drilling fluids offers many advantages, including well-bottom well pressure control combined with improved blade cleanliness and stability. In the current scenario of the oil market, these features become key requirements for personnel safety, operational efficiency and cost reduction, particularly in drilling environments with very narrow margins with ever-increasing water depths , and well situations characterized by high pressure and high temperature.

HoD (Heart of Drilling) technology is an advanced system for continuous circulation, developed and patented by Drillmec, where an automated control system provides for switching of sludge circulation between the drive head (top drive ) and a lateral opening integrated into each valve (sub) mounted at the top of the drilling lengths before starting the drilling step. A completely self- locking, remote-controlled key locks the opening and closing of the integrated side door with an operation that does not involve any manual action.

When a new length is added to the drill string, a sub mounted on the perforated length, and in the well, is positioned at the rotary table and the automatic key, which links a lateral flow line, is engagement with the sub. Once the key lock hydraulic clamps are securely connected to the sub, the probe staff can move away from the most vulnerable area, delimited by a red perimeter, and handle the rest of the operating sequence by a control panel remote. Acting on the key controls from the control panel, the operator opens the outer cover of the sub side opening, which remains inside the key throughout the operating sequence. When the control system confirms the opening state of the outer cap, the drilling mud stream can be directed by the top drive to the side opening in the sub before unscrewing the top drive from the drill string; after adding a new drilling length, the mudflow can be redirected to the top drive. The flow rate of drilling sludge to the shaft remains constant throughout the entire connection sequence, thus maintaining a dynamic shaft condition characterized by a constant bottom well pressure and continuous drilling of the BHA (Bottom Hole Assembly). The continuous circulation system HoD can be used both during the drilling phases and in the maneuvering phases. the drilling mud stream can be directed by the top drive to the side opening in the sub before unscrewing the top drive from the drill string; after adding a new drilling length, the mudflow can be redirected to the top drive. The flow rate of drilling sludge to the shaft remains constant throughout the entire connection sequence, thus maintaining a dynamic shaft condition characterized by a constant bottom well pressure and continuous drilling of the BHA (Bottom Hole Assembly). The continuous circulation system HoD can be used both during the drilling phases and in the maneuvering phases. the drilling mud stream can be directed by the top drive to the side opening in the sub before unscrewing the top drive from the drill string; after adding a new drilling length, the mudflow can be redirected to the top drive. The flow rate of drilling sludge to the shaft remains constant throughout the entire connection sequence, thus maintaining a dynamic shaft condition characterized by a constant bottom well pressure and continuous drilling of the BHA (Bottom Hole Assembly). The continuous circulation system HoD can be used both during the drilling phases and in the maneuvering phases. after adding a new drilling length, the mudflow can be redirected to the top drive. The flow rate of drilling sludge to the shaft remains constant throughout the entire connection sequence, thus maintaining a dynamic shaft condition characterized by a constant bottom well pressure and continuous drilling of the BHA (Bottom Hole Assembly). The continuous circulation system HoD can be used both during the drilling phases and in the maneuvering phases. after adding a new drilling length, the mudflow can be redirected to the top drive. The flow rate of drilling sludge to the shaft remains constant throughout the entire connection sequence, thus maintaining a dynamic shaft condition characterized by a constant bottom well pressure and continuous drilling of the BHA (Bottom Hole Assembly). The continuous circulation system HoD can be used both during the drilling phases and in the maneuvering phases. thus maintaining a dynamic shaft condition characterized by a constant bottom drain pressure and continuous BHA drilling (Bottom Hole Assembly). The continuous circulation system HoD can be used both during the drilling phases and in the maneuvering phases. thus maintaining a dynamic shaft condition characterized by a constant bottom drain pressure and continuous BHA drilling (Bottom Hole Assembly). The continuous circulation system HoD can be used both during the drilling phases and in the maneuvering phases.

Some important considerations during the design process have given rise to high safety standards for staff and equipment, ease of integration into the drilling rigs in operation, and the ability to minimize downtime by integrating a maintenance management system in control systems.

All components of the HoD system are designed according to applicable APIs for a working pressure of 7500 psi and a maximum flow rate of 1000 gpm during connection. The side side opening design guarantees a double safety barrier between the pressure inside the drill and the outside during connection to the probe and in the well. Both barriers are independent and have been tested at one and a half times the exercise pressure.

The system is designed to be integrated into ground and sea systems, with the manifold running the sludge flow, the hydraulic unit and the control system integrated in the same frame with a small footprint. This feature provides complete flexibility during installation, safe and fast assembly operations without the need for expensive modifications to the sludge circuit of the drilling rig. The typical installation layout isolates the manifold from the pumping system during the drilling phases. Consequently, the load losses added to the mud circuit are minimized and the duration of the valves in the sludge manifold can be drastically increased. In addition, with the non-pressurized sludge manifold during drilling,

Operations during connection are completely controlled through a secure area on the probe plane or directly from the perforator cabin. Human intervention is only required to engage and remove the automatic key, but the key itself and the associated hinge are not pressurized during such operations. For newly conceived Drillmec systems, where the HoD Continuous Circulating System can be integrated directly into the mud system, a fully automated keypad handling system has also been developed.

Management software provides complete remote control of operating sequences, as well as providing real-time status of each component of the system on the remote control panel. The connection sequence can be performed with a fully automated or semi-automatic routine. In both cases, the control system acquires and processes signals from integrated sensors into the main components of the system, reducing human errors with text messages and alarms. The software also includes a Computerized Maintenance Management System (CMMS) that helps maintain a historical database of operating parameters for each component of the system, plan and monitor maintenance activities, and manage transaction reports.

After successfully completing rigorous hydrostatic and functional testing programs, the HoD Continuous Circuit System has recently completed field application in a deep pit for the confinement of a ground field in Europe. In particular, the HoD® Continuous Circulating System has been used to perform 12-inch and 1/4 phase drilling with the objective of maintaining constant ECD ("equivalent circulation density") density during connections, improve drill and hole battery cleaning and stability during drilling and drum extraction from the well. For this application, "ad hoc" designed and built for acid environments containing H2S,

The entire HoD package showed excellent results in terms of functionality and reliability of components in extreme working conditions and characterized by high specific weight sludges and high hydraulic parameters. Continuous circular connections were carried out in complete safety with a maximum pressure of the plant probe manifold of 4,200 psi and a maximum flow rate of 750 gpm.

Read More → DRILLMEC PRESENTS HOD, NEW SYSTEM FOR CONTINUOUS FLUID CIRCULATION

Kelly Tube

A kelly tube is a piece of drilling equipment. In particular, it refers to a device used in the extraction of liquid or semi-liquid resources such as oil and natural gas. The main purpose of a kelly tube is to allow the drilling battery to be raised and lowered at the same time as the drum fluid is pumped through it. This is important, as drilling fluid is essential for the extraction process.

In most cases, a kelly tube is classified as a large diameter tube. This means that the inside diameter is usually between 3 and 5 inches (about 7.6 cm and 12.7 centimeters). This wide diameter allows flow rate and reduces the probability of a block occurring in the tube.

The kelly tube must also be able to withstand large amounts of pressure. This is especially true for the pressure of the fluid flowing through the tube. For this reason, it is often made of very durable material and is generally reinforced with steel.

In a drilling or perforating tower, the kelly tube connects the pipe, which is the rigid metal shaft carrying the mining fluid to the rotating part, which is the piece supporting the weight and commands the rotation of the drilling battery. Its purpose is to provide a flexible drilling fluid conduit as a rigid conduit would be able to move with the rotation and therefore prevent the drum battery movement and, subsequently, the bit.

Drilling fluid, sometimes referred to as drilling mud, carried by a kelly tube is essential for operations in several ways. It keeps the cold a little, which helps to reduce friction and failure. It also cleans the bit and removes drilling debris so that it can not damage the drill unit. Some varieties are used for additional purposes, such as corrosion and hydrostatic pressure. Drilling fluid is not necessarily fluid, but can be a solid, liquid, gas or other combined form.

The kelly tube is so called because its connection to kelly, the actual mechanical piece that expels the drilling fluid on the drill. Alternatively it can be called a mud tube or rotary tube. Failure may occur, despite the robust construction of the tube. This failure can cause damage to the rig or failure. Unsuccessful kelly tubes must be repaired or replaced before extraction operations can safely and effectively resume.

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Mud Gun

A mud gun is a device used to shake the mud on a drilling rig. More than a nozzle of a gun, a mud gun is connected to a pump to circulate the drilling mud and prevent solids from settling into the mud tank. The mud mixture is sucked into a tube by a powerful pump and ejected into the sludge tank to be pushed through the mud gun nozzle. The process is similar to how a jet of water works on a power washer.

Perforating mud is a damp substance that resembles a thick clay and is used to cool the drilling head and to carry the surface drilling remains in drilling well and oil or gas drilling operations. The mud is recycled by passing through a series of filters or screens as it is circulated in the hole and back into the mud tanks on the drilling. To keep the mud as fluid as possible, a mud gun is used to keep the tank agitated and mixed. Mud is made by mixing water or oil with a clay substance that also contains many other chemicals in a large reservoir called the mud tank on a drilling rig.

The type of mud used during drilling depends on the type of drilling that is performed. The mud gun is the same for any kind of mud used. Often made by adding a nozzle type on a piece of pipe, mud gun works like positioning an inch above the end of a water pipe. This is pressurized mud in the tank, making it a mixing action. Exhausting the mixture also helps in removing debris from the mixture as it is filtered through the various screens in the tank.

The viscosity of the mud is very critical, with a thin blend being able to keep the cuttings from the suspended drilling head until it reaches the surface and can be shielded from the blend. A blend that is too thick can waste profits and can also slow down drilling productivity. Another function of the mud gun is to keep the suspension of the puncture cuttings so that they can be removed at the first pass through the screens. Talees that are not removed at first pass through the screens can break into smaller pieces that are more difficult to remove from the mix.

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What is Shale Shaker and the purposes

Vibrations are a type of industrial equipment used to remove rock particles from the drilling mud. This drilling fluid, or mud, plays a key role in the drilling process. It is washed through rock cuttings when cut from the drill, and also helps to cool the tip to reduce the risk of overheating. The vibrator is designed to remove these rock bits and other solid materials from the drill mud so it can be reused safely over and over again. Shale stirrers often serve as part of a wider mud removal system, which helps keep the free mud free, not only solid, but also unwanted gases and other contaminants.

To understand how shale shale works, it is useful to understand how it refers to other parts of the drilling process. The drilling fluid, consisting of water, oil and chemicals, collects in a storage pit or drum from the ground. Once the drilling begins, this fluid travels down through drilling cables and enters the hole through holes in the tip mechanism. From here, it washes back the sides of the hole, carrying rock particles and other debris on the surface. Once the mud reaches the surface, it goes to the storage pit for re-use.

In drilling projects with a mud cleaning system in place, this mud flows directly from the hole and vibrator. The vibrators consist of a vibrating tray covered with a wire mesh screen. Rocks and other solid materials remain on the top of the screen as the liquid passes through. The vibrant screen action helps to facilitate this process.

The shale shaker shade selection is critical to the elimination of solid materials. The size of the holes on the screen should match the size of the rock that is extracted from each hole. It is also important to choose corrosion-resistant materials such as galvanized steel to withstand extreme conditions at a puncture site. Many projects include more vibrations so that the drilling mud has to pass through several layers of cleanliness and refinement.

Shale shaker offers many advantages to drilling companies. These systems allow you to clean drilling fluid so that it can be reused over and over again. Without these agitators, debris in the mud could damage drilling and halt operations. Reusing drilling fluid helps to save limited resources, and also reduces costs for drilling equipment. Finally, vibrating makes it easy to capture rocks and other solids that have been contaminated with oil so that they can be ecologically disposed of.

Read More → What is Shale Shaker and the purposes

Purpose of Barite or Baryte

In oil and gas drilling

Worldwide, 69–77% of baryte (barite) is used as a weighting agent for drilling fluids in oil and gas exploration to suppress high formation pressures and prevent blowouts. As a well is drilled, the bit passes through various formations, each with different characteristics. The deeper the hole, the more baryte (barite) is needed as a percentage of the total mud mix. An additional benefit of baryte (barite) is that it is non-magnetic and thus does not interfere with magnetic measurements taken in the borehole, either during logging-while-drilling or in separate drill hole logging. Baryte (barite) used for drilling petroleum wells can be black, blue, brown or gray depending on the ore body. The baryte (barite) is finely ground so that at least 97% of the material, by weight, can pass through a 200-mesh (75 μm) screen, and no more than 30%, by weight, can be less than 6 μm diameter. The ground baryte (barite) also must be dense enough so that its specific gravity is 4.2 or greater, soft enough to not damage the bearings of a tricone drill bit, chemically inert, and containing no more than 250 milligrams per kilogram of soluble alkaline salts.[7] In August 2010 API (American Petroleum Institute) published specifications to modify the 4.2 drilling grade standards for baryte (barite) to include 4.1 SG materials.

In oxygen and sulfur isotopic analysis

In the deep ocean, away from continental sources of sediment, pelagic baryte (barite) precipitates and forms a significant amount of the sediments. Since baryte (barite) has oxygen, systematics in the δ18O of these sediments have been used to help constrain paleotemperatures for oceanic crust.

The variations in sulfur isotopes (34S/32S) are being examined in evaporite minerals containing sulfur (ex, baryte (barite)) and carbonate associated sulfates (CAS) to determine past seawater sulfur concentrations which can help identify specific depositonal periods such as anoxic or oxic conditions. The use of sulfur isotope reconstruction is often paired with oxygen when a molecule contains both elements.

Other uses

Baryte (Barite) is used in added-value applications which include filler in paint and plastics, sound reduction in engine compartments, coat of automobile finishes for smoothness and corrosion resistance, friction products for automobiles and trucks, radiation-shielding cement, glass ceramics and medical applications (for example, a barium meal before a contrast CAT scan). Baryte (barite) is supplied in a variety of forms and the price depends on the amount of processing; filler applications commanding higher prices following intense physical processing by grinding and micronising, and there are further premiums for whiteness and brightness and color.It is also used to produce other barium chemicals, notably barium carbonate which is used for the manufacture of LED glass for television and computer screens (historically in cathode ray tubes); and for dielectrics.

Historically baryte (barite) was used for the production of barium hydroxide for sugar refining, and as a white pigment for textiles, paper, and paint

Although baryte (barite) contains a "heavy" metal (barium), it is not a toxic chemical because of its extreme insolubility.

It is also sometimes used as gemstone.

Read More → Purpose of Barite or Baryte

Ultrasonic Mixers for Drilling Muds and Fluid Packers

Drilling liquid (drilling mud) is used to aid drilling of oil wells, natural gas wells, exploration wells (wildcat wells) or water wells. Ultrasonic reactors are an effective technology for emulsifying blending, dispersing and degassing water-based mud (WBM, aqueous), oil-based mud (OBM, non-aqueous) or mud-based synthetic (SBM ). 

The formulation and the persistence of the quality of drilling sludge is a key factor in drilling operations today. The mud composition and characteristics affect well-drilled stability, lubrication, cooling and drilling penetration rate. Even small problems with the puncture fluid can stop the whole drilling operation. Derivatives from too dense or too heavy drilling mud excessive pressure can cause significant leakage. 

It allowed it to be generally made of fresh water, sea water, or (saturated or formiated) brine and natural clay and polymers. OBM and SBM Inverti-emulsion systems that have an oil base (diesel, mineral oil) or synthetic base (olefins and paraffins) such as continuous (external) and brine as the dispersed phase (internal). The emulsion must be sufficiently stable to withstand the addition of the water flow from the well. Less common than water in oil (Inverted oil sludge emulsion) are oil in water (oil emulsion sludges). Ultrasonic faecemulsification works for both types of emulsion and achieves good internal stability, water, or brine. 

Ultrasonic reactors are very effective and intense cavitation cutting mixers for use in production. Generally, ultrasonic reactors are used inline for high throughput single step transformation or batch processing recirculated. 

Ultrasonic can mixing for 

Manufacture of additives 

Masterbatch with high concentration to prepare 

Mix ready-to-use drilling fluids or packer fluids 

Degas drilling sludge 

Develop and formulate better sludge drilling 

Production of drilling mud additives The manufacture of chemicals and additives such as liquid polymer sludge benefits from high-capacity processing and ultrasonic cutting flexibility. Ultrasonic mixing unleashes all the potential of additives, such as viscosifiers, filter reducers or polymer additives. Ultrasonic cavitation moisturizes powders quickly and completely during drilling mud mixing. For mixing liquid / liquid emulsions, It improves in-line mixing of the two phases in the intense cavitation cutting zone.

Ultrasonic mixing improves the mass transfer to particles in liquids or boundary layers. This reduces the time needed to prepare the brine or brine, eg. calcium chloride brine, calcium bromide brine, zinc bromide brine or brine of potassium formate and cesium. 

Masterbatches of clay or additives 

Mixing ultrasonic cutting can be used to make high concentrations or high density compounds (eg calcium carbonate (plaster), deflocculents or saprophagous organisms) before adding these to the final drilling mud formulation. 

Production of Fluids and Packers Fluid Drilling 

Drilling mud performance, such as shrinkage stability, viscosity, cooling or lubrication, depends on many factors. Uniformity and consistency in quality of the utmost importance. Ultrasonic cutting mixing is very effective in the production of uniform size distribution distributions and therefore better dispersion and emulsion stability. This prevents phase separation or settling during storage, transport, or while mud wells. 

Today specific mud drilling changes frequently. Hielscher ultrasonic reactors are highly adaptable to changes in the perforation liquid formulation. By changing from a traditional mixing line to single-pass mixing ultrasonic mixing, several types of perforating mud can be made on the same ultrasonic machine. This helps reduce storage time for inventory and shelf. 

The dispersion of conventional clay (eg bentonite) and organofile clay specially treated in the fluid produces sludges and highly viscous, thixotropic or trimming-thinning gel. When exposed to high ultrasonic cutting, the viscosity drops to a flow-free state. This facilitates dispersion and manipulation. For this reason, sonication is very effective for mixing thixotropic sewage and fluidizing the cutting. Sonification results in better dispersion of bentonite / platelet particles and improved gelling characteristics. Ultrasonic dispersion of bentonite (performed with ultrasonic mixer UIP2000hdT) 

Rheological, thickening and stabilizing agents (eg gums, glycols, carboxymethylcellulose, polyanionic cellulose (PAC) or starch) require good dispersion for maximum effectiveness. 

Agents, such as weight barite (baritine) sulfite, must not separate from mud during storage, transport or perforation. In accordance with Stokes law, smaller particles of sediment slower or not at all. Dispersion ultrasound avoids larger agglomerates, which can cause dispersion instability. A dispersing system can increase the tolerance for solids, making it possible to weigh up to 20 pounds / gallon (US) or 2.4 g / cm 3 . 

Degassing of mud 

When preparing sludge drilling, clay powder and other additive powders introduce a lot of air into the circulation mud. This gas is trapped inside liquid systems and can cause loss and separation of emulsifying or stabilizing performance. Repeated compression (high pressure cycles) and rarefaction (low pressure cycles) during sonication allow decomposed gas to migrate and form small microbubbles. Ultrasonic waves then force the coalescence gas microbubbles. Ultrasonic high cavitation cutting reduces thinning cut viscosity and thixotropic drilling fluids. This way the air bubbles rise faster. This leads to the best separation of gas in reservoirs downstream of the separator or degassing under vacuum. Degassing increases mud weight, reduces viscosity and separation problems. Less gas bubbles reduce the use of emulsifiers, stabilizers, surfactants and dispersing agents. This reduces the cost per barrel. A reduction in gas content can curb aerobic microbial growth, too. 

Read More → Ultrasonic Mixers for Drilling Muds and Fluid Packers

Drilling Rig

A drilling rig is a machine that creates holes in the earth sub-surface. Drilling rigs can be massive structures housing equipment used to drill water wells, oil wells, or natural gas extraction wells, or they can be small enough to be moved manually by one person and are called augers. Drilling rigs can sample sub-surface mineral deposits, test rock, soil and groundwater physical properties, and also can be used to install sub-surface fabrications, such as underground utilities, instrumentation, tunnels or wells. Drilling rigs can be mobile equipment mounted on trucks, tracks or trailers, or more permanent land or marine-based structures (such as oil platforms, commonly called 'offshore oil rigs' even if they don't contain a drilling rig). The term "rig" therefore generally refers to the complex of equipment that is used to penetrate the surface of the Earth's crust.

Small to medium-sized drilling rigs are mobile, such as those used in mineral exploration drilling, blast-hole, water wells and environmental investigations. Larger rigs are capable of drilling through thousands of metres of the Earth's crust, using large "mud pumps" to circulate drilling mud (slurry) through the drill bit and up the casing annulus, for cooling and removing the "cuttings" while a well is drilled. Hoists in the rig can lift hundreds of tons of pipe. Other equipment can force acid or sand into reservoirs to facilitate extraction of the oil or natural gas; and in remote locations there can be permanent living accommodation and catering for crews (which may be more than a hundred). Marine rigs may operate thousands of miles distant from the supply base with infrequent crew rotation or cycle.

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Conclusion on the processing of oil

The oil must undergo many changes to be exploitable in the context of a specific use. These transformations involve multiple energy consumption, little known today (no doubt the oil industry have information on this issue). In the end, the multitude of products can be used in various ways (fuel, fuel, petrochemical, plastics, etc.).. 

These byproducts are sometimes directly recyclable (gasoline, diesel, etc.). sometimes they will suffer from further processing to be usable, some are even-products, which have no real opportunities. 

The tendency is to a maximum value of by-products, and the proportion of products derived is relatively fixed, Indutries oil must seek additional outlets for products produced in over-quantity. For example, the French fleet dieselisation pushes the quantities of products for which we must be sure the application or to find new markets.

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Distillation

Crude oil is first heated to 370 ° C. It then partially vaporizes and is carried out in a fractionating column (a kind of distillation tower). 

At the top of the column is recovered refinery gas used as fuel on site. It also recovers other petroleum gas such as butane and propane, gasoline and naphtha. The latter is the base compound of the petrochemical industry. Then recovered kerosene (used iFn aviation, the jet engines), diesel and heating oil. Further down the column is recovered residues, which are re-distilled under vacuum to provide heavy fuel oil, lubricants and bitumen. 

In order to obtain specific grades of gasoline (high octane) and reduce the content sulfur diesel fuels, we must also deal with products of distillation.

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Drilling for oil

After the drilling of one exploration well, designed to confirm the presence of oil and other wells are drilled to delineate the deposit. Most wells are drilled using a drill bit, a cutting tool on the end of a set of drill pipe supported by a metal tower called derrick. The drill bit is rotated. The drilling speed varies greatly depending on the nature of the rocks traversed. Of the "drilling mud" (a mixture of clay with water and chemicals) is continuously injected inside the stems. It goes back into the space between the rods and the walls of the well. The mud serves to cool the drill bit and remove the cuttings. Back on the surface, the slurry is filtered and reinjected into the well. Analysis of the debris can qualify the rocks traversed. 

Advances in drilling techniques now allow the completion of drilling small diameter boreholes deviated (obliques), horizontal multidrains, etc ... This progress has allowed the exploitation of deposits that were previously unprofitable, for technical reasons and / or economic. 

For offshore deposits (offshore), is generally used for pumping platform independent. Special ships can be used to exploit deposits of lower capacity.

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State of the World's Oil Reserves

A simplified figure and relatively speaking: a cube of 7 kilometers from the side, half empty (or half full, it depends), with a leak rate equivalent to the Rhone is the current state of reserves and world oil consumption.

Proven reserves are generally estimated at between 140 and 160 Gt, or 1,050 to 1,200 Gbl. But taking into account technological advances and a recovery rate above 30%, the reserves could reach 266 Gt (or 1'996 GBL). The truth is that the reserves are not well known, and that in addition to proven reserves, it is quite inappropriate to make hypothetical assumptions about the probable reserves and ultimate.

Fairly coarse (and varies according to findings nouvaux oilfields), proven reserves are geographically distributed as follows:

• 55-60% in the Middle East;
• 15-18% in North America;
• 7-8% in Central and South America;
• 6-7% in Eastern Europe and Former Soviet Union;
• 6-8% in Africa;
• 3-5% in Asia and Oceania;
• 1-2% (!) In Western Europe;

I'll let you calculate how many tons or barrels this is by geographic area.

The countries of OPEC account for approximately 75-80% of total world proven reserves. Several sources say, however, that the state reserves of many countries been an overestimate: these optimistic data are primarily used to sit supremacy and economic influence of the major producing countries.

The rise in oil prices led to interest in deposits unconventional oil , such as oil sands, whose operation is known as energy-intensive, highly polluting, and catastrophic for the environment (despite some methods that allow to avoid the creation of open pits).

Global warming also affects some plan to use: the melting of arctic ice led some companies (such as Arctic Oil & Gas Corp) interest in the exploitation of hitherto inaccessible deposits.

Finally, the exploitation of new (types of) deposits appears to be the preferred track to generate more wealth to the detriment of the fight against global warming and more generally the protection of the environment. Or how to cut ever more ardently the branch on which we sit ...

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