New Oil Drilling Technology Will Soon Spark An Explosion Of Oil

Energy stocks have been tearing higher since the election on bets that the Trump administration will relax environmental restrictions and open more federal lands to oil and gas drilling. Crude oil’s staying north of $50 hasn’t hurt, either.

It is up there in part because OPEC threw in the towel and agreed to production limits. Unfortunately for OPEC, those limits don’t apply to US and Canadian shale producers. And the history of OPEC is that they all cheat like crazy, anyway.

There will be no end to oil production

I think it is entirely possible that we will see oil prices climb somewhat further by mid-year, possibly approaching $60, and then pull back as capped US production comes back online. Look at the chart below to see the wide variation among forecasts of major energy analysts working for the big banks.

I also think that this year, we’ll start to see a new pattern: Production could keep rising even as prices fall. Conventional wisdom says that producers stop pumping at some point when it becomes unprofitable, but I think that is about to change.

New technology will lead to greater production and higher profits

If you are an oil producer—or really, any commodity producer—two things can improve your profit margin: higher selling prices for the resource you produce or lower production costs. Some combination of both works as well.

Now, selling prices are mostly outside the producer’s control, though adept hedging can help. Cost reduction is, therefore, the place to concentrate your attention. Back in 2015, I wrote about new drilling techniques and other technology that promised to bring oil and gas production costs significantly lower.

Now, in the last few weeks, people in the business have told me these technologies are moving rapidly toward deployment. They foresee considerably lower drilling and production costs by the end of this year.

I had a confidential briefing recently about some new energy production processes that are coming online in the oil patch. Let me just say that production from an oil well drilled with these new techniques is getting ready to increase substantially.

In some cases, the amount of oil produced per dollar spent on drilling is going to more than double. There are significant chunks of the petroleum-producing parts of the United States where $40 oil will not be a barrier to drilling and new production.

Eventually—in a few years—these techniques will begin to show up in wells around the world, and there will be an explosion of oil. Even as many oilfields dry up, there will be new fields developed from previously unprofitable sources.

This will have massive economic and geopolitical implications

This technology trend means that the current oil price range may well break lower—perhaps this year, but certainly within this decade—without energy companies losing profits.

Not every company will reap the rewards equally, of course; but the industry as a whole is excited. Energy exploration and production is quickly becoming a technology-driven industry with the US as world leader.

If Trump permits construction of more pipelines and natural gas export terminals, we could see North American exports rise considerably in the next few years.

Obviously, over time, a falling energy price will not be good for OPEC or for Russia. Those lower prices will create geopolitical challenges as well as economic ones. I don’t know how it will all shake out. We will likely see some big, energy-driven changes in the world order in the coming decades.

But that is beyond the scope of my crystal ball.

Source: www,forbes.com

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Oil Exploration With Gravity And Magnetic Geophysical Methods

Gravity and magnetic methods are an essential part of oil exploration. They do not replace seismic. Rather, they add to it. Despite being comparatively low-resolution, they have some very big advantages.

These geophysical methods passively measure natural variations in the earth’s gravity and magnetic fields over a map area and then try to relate these variations to geologic features in the subsurface. Lacking a controlled source, such surveys are usually environmentally unobjectionable.

At a comparatively low cost, airborne potential field surveys can provide coverage of large areas. Allowing quick regional coverage, even gravity surveys can now be recorded from an aircraft with airly high reliability.

In Canada, digital regional gravity and magnetic data are available at zero cost from federal government agencies. Local and detailed surveys are acquired by exploration companies.

Because many college programs tend to overemphasize seismic as almost the only geophysical tool for oil exploration, other methods are sometimes overlooked by explorationists and managers. Where useful gravity and magnetic data are disregarded, risk reduction is incomplete, and the results of exploration programs are less reliable.

What anomalies mean

The physical rock property that links gravity anomalies to rock composition is density. The rock property that links magnetic anomalies to rock composition is total magnetization. Thus, each potential-field method valuable provides its own picture of the subsurface.

Density is scalar, but magnetization is a vector total of a vast and commonly unpredictable variety of remanent and induced magnetizations. Unlike density, magnetization can depend on very slight variations in the occurrence and distribution of particular minerals, which may have little relation to the overall lithology.

A geophysical anomaly is the difference between the observed (measured) geophysical field value and the value that would be observed at the same location if the Earth were more uniform. Nonuniformities in the physical properties of rocks give rise to geophysical anomalies.

Being responsive to lateral variations in rock properties, gravity and magnetic methods are best suited for detecting steep discontinuities such as faults. Seismic methods, by contrast, are best for detecting vertical rock variations and low-angle discontinuities such as layer boundaries.

The gravity field is simple, unipolar and almost perfectly vertical. The geomagnetic field is complicated: It has two or more poles, and it is commonly strongly nonvertical. Besides, it changes all the time, necessitating frequent updates by government agencies.

Gravity lows (negative anomalies) occur where rocks in the subsurface have a comparatively low density, which reduces their downward gravitational pull. Where the rock density is relatively high, the gravitational pull is increased, and a gravity high (positive anomaly) occurs.

Magnetic anomalies are more complex because the magnetic field and rock magnetization are both complicated. With a nonvertical dipolar field, a single rock-made anomaly source can be deceptively associated with a pair of apparent anomalies: a high and a low side by side.

Gravity and magnetic surveys should be designed purposefully to resolve the specific kind of anomalies that are expected from geologic targets of interest in a particular study.

Gravity and magnetic surveys should be designed purposefully to resolve the specific kind of anomalies that are expected from geologic targets of interest in a particular study. If a survey is too tight, money is wasted on redundant coverage. If a survey is too sparse, the desirable anomalies are undersampled and not delineated sufficiently. The idea is to design the sparsest and smallest, hence cheapest, survey that would resolve all the expected desirable anomalies.

Examples of exploration use

In the platformal Phanerozoic Alberta and Williston basins, most big magnetic and gravity anomalies are associated with ductile structures and rock composition variations in the crystalline basement inherited from orogenic events in the Precambrian. Such ductile ancient structures were fairly seldom reactivated, and they had relatively little influence on the Phanerozoic basins above.

More important are the later brittle basement faults and fractures, whose offset can be as little as a few meters, sometimes below seismic resolution.

Such brittle faults had a variety of direct and indirect influences on many intervals in the Phanerozoic sedimentary cover. They are commonly associated with subtle gravity and magnetic lineaments, some of which cut across the regional pattern of major anomalies. To help delineate fault networks, researchers created a regional gravity and magnetic atlas of the southern and central part of the Alberta Basin.

A gravity or magnetic lineament can be a gradient zone, linear break in the anomaly pattern, straight anomaly or even an alignment of separate local anomalies. Long lineaments are more likely to be associated with faults than short ones, especially if they occur in swarms or are a part of a regional pattern.

The best data processing methods are simple and intuitive so that derivative maps and anomalies are easy to relate to their precursors in the raw data.

Gravity and magnetic data can be processed specifically to highlight subtle lineaments (Figure 1). Particularly useful processing methods tend to be first and second horizontal and vertical derivatives, third-order residuals, automatic gain control, total gradient (analytic signal) and shaded-relief maps (shadowgrams). Wavelength filtering has a major pitfall in that Gibbs ringing can produce lineament-like artifacts, so it is best avoided.

FIGURE 1. This regional horizontal-gradient magnetic map of central and southern Alberta shows selected lineaments highlighted as straight white lines (after Lyatsky et al., 2005). (Source: Lyatsky Geoscience Research & Consulting Ltd.)

To help identify faults, gravity and magnetic lineaments should be compared with topographic and drainage lineaments. Seismic data and geological studies can help to determine if suspected faults had an influence on any particular play interval.

In horst and graben basins such as the offshore Queen Charlotte Basin on the west coast of British Columbia, the first step is to examine geological information from the surrounding areas on land and from drillholes in the basin. The pattern of raised and lowered crustal blocks in and around the basin can be determined from geologic field mapping and from a combination of seismic and gravity data.

Magnetic data (Figure 2) in the Queen Charlotte Basin were used to further delineate the networks of local and regional faults. Seismic data in this basin suffer from an uneven maximum depth of signal penetration due to the presence of numerous volcanic stringers. On land and offshore magnetic data were instrumental in the delineation of extrusive and intrusive igneous rocks, which was crucial for understanding the patterns of organic maturation.

FIGURE 2. In this horizontal-gradient magnetic vector map of the Queen Charlotte Islands and Hecate Strait, British Columbia, the numbered heavy black arrows indicate magnetic lineaments. Light thin lines indicate the magnetic horizontal gradient, with length proportional to the gradient magnitude and pointing “downhill.” (Source: Lyatsky Geoscience Research & Consulting Ltd.)

Teaching of gravity and magnetic methods

The relatively low priority given to potential-field methods in many oil-oriented college programs impoverishes students and their employers. Where gravity and magnetics courses exist, too often they focus—with intimidatingly advanced mathematics—on the physics of potential fields at the expense of exploration applications, survey design and methods of geological interpretation.

Too many gravity and magnetics textbooks are also very mathematical (with a superb exception of Nettleton, 1971). Too little tends to be said about the relationships between anomalies and variations in rock composition, which is the key to geological interpretation.

Misleadingly, numerical inversions of potential fields data are sometimes presented as interpretations. However, mathematics is abstract. Interpretation is essentially geological, with geophysical data used to provide geological information.

When geologists, seismologists and potential fields experts are too narrowly specialized, they do not talk to each other enough. The result is commonly disregard of valuable gravity and magnetic information. Alternatively, interpretations are too numerical to be useful if geological considerations are ignored.

Gravity and magnetics experts in oil exploration should talk less in an echo chamber among themselves. They should learn to think more like their clients, who tend to be geologists and seismologists. Their work should be presented from first principles, with minimum mathematics and with maximum geological consideration. Only then can interdisciplinary walls be brought down and exploration managers can vividly see the essential practical utility of gravity and magnetic methods.

Source : www.epmag.com

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Sonic Recording for Oil Gas Drilling

Sonic Recording is a technique used in drilling operations to analyze rock and ground underground formations with sound waves. Oil and gas exploration and recovery uses a drilling rig that creates a deep hole called a hole by using a rotating drilling tool connected to long tube sections. The drilling head creates a hole with a diameter equal to the tip size.

A sound reproduction tool is connected to a powered wire and dropped the hole to create a sound recording chart. This instrument consists of a transmitter and receiver co-located on a long tube that fits into the sound hole. The transmitter sends a series of high frequency ultrasonic pulses in all directions that enter the surrounding rock formations and return to the receiver.

To prevent the transmitter and the receiver from interfering with each other, a number of different techniques are used. The transmitter and the receiver are separated from the distance, creating a more cylindrical shape. Sound absorbing materials and rubber gaskets can help reduce part of the sound from the transmitter reaching the receiver. The most important drawing element refers to turning off the receiver every time the transmitter sends a pulse. This prevents false signals in the sound recording results, and prevents the sounds transmitted from damaging the receiver.

The transmitter sends sound impulses in short gusts, entering the rock surrounding the hole; part of the sound quickly reflects back to the receiver, and some enter the surrounding rock and is diffracted, which means it changes direction from the output sound. Since the diffused sound returns to the receiver, the time difference between the transmitted and the return sound is recorded. Another sound travel effect in the ground is attenuation, which is a reduction of sound due to absorption. As the sound enters rock around the well, rock and other materials absorb the sound, reducing the amount of signal that returns to the receiver; this in turn can provide information on the characteristics of the ground.

Sonic recording is effective in determining the characteristics of a hole because sound travels different depending on the rock or surrounding ground of the transmitter. The first sounds to return to the receiver are p-waves or pressure waves, because they typically have the highest speed or speed. Waves P travel faster in high density rock, and slower in sand or less dense soil, which is called more porous.

The second type of sound waves to return to the receiver is waves S, or cut. A cutting force wants to tear something apart, so these waves are measuring the formation for its ability to cut or break. This is important in oil drilling, because the formation of oil or gas must be broken before the product can be recovered; this is called fracking. Waves S will provide information that is used in this operation.

When the sound recording tool is sent a hole, which provides a visual representation of the sub-superficial characteristics. Rock fractures can aid drilling operations in the product area, but can cause problems if found elsewhere in the hole, which can be sealed with a pipe or similar cement sealant to prevent leakage from the bore. Water may also be a problem for drilling operations, as it will blend with the product; If water enters the well in any large quantities, it may require further processing later to remove it from the oil. Another concern is contamination of groundwater with oil, so understanding where there are layers of water can reduce environmental concerns.

Read More → Sonic Recording for Oil Gas Drilling

Exploration Drilling

Exploration drilling is a procedure in which several test holes are perforated in order to evaluate the soil content in a particular area. It was conducted to find out whether the valuable materials are present, and to evaluate the quality of these materials. There are a number of industries that use drilling exploration in their work, sometimes with their own drilling crews, and sometimes through companies offering hire of drilling services.

A common reason for drilling exploration to do is in mining prospecting. Once a potential site is identified, drilling exploration can be used to determine whether the site has material of interest ranging from metallic minerals to diamonds, and to evaluate the quality and quantity of such materials. 

In the first drilling exploration phases, several test holes can be excavated for carotage covering a large area. Once site value is confirmed, additional holes can be drilled and people can learn more about site quality. The company has to determine whether exploiting the site will generate profits that exceed the costs of drilling and the ongoing site maintenance costs once it is active. A site with potentially poor returns could be too expensive to invest, leading the company to pull out.

The oil industry also uses exploration to pervade suspect oil deposits. Drill samples are analyzed to determine the quality of the crude, while geologists work on estimates of how much oil can be available at the site. People are sometimes surprised to learn that crude oil actually enters into quality ranges that determine what can be done on the market by analyzing oil deposits on a critical site.

Geologists can use drilling exploration to learn more about geological layers without the specific target of exploiting mineral resources. Carotages can provide a great deal of information about geological composition of a site and history. These samples can also be picked up by ice and mud deposits to collect layers of stored data that provides climatic information; Pollen displacement can indicate change in time, for example, while increases in deposits of certain chemicals can sometimes be related to geological or human activity.

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What is Seismic Drilling

Seismic drilling, also known as drilling, is perforation conducted as part of a seismic survey of geological formation. In such studies, the team uses a series of controlled vibrations to generate a map of underground structures. This map can determine where deposited material is to be found and how accessible it will be drilling equipment. Seismic surveys are an important part of oil and gas, and are also used by researchers who want to map geological formations for scientific purposes.

In seismic drilling, a company uses a drill specially designed to dig a hole at the desired depth. Air and water cutters are both available for this purpose, and are often mounted on slides or mobile platforms. This allows the team to quickly move the drill between the positions, which may be critical on a large survey. The time it takes to establish a drilling platform and stabilize it can add considerably the overall time required for the survey, and as a result teams try to use mobile drills where it is possible to do so.

After sinking a hole, team members can mount explosives inside. These explosives cause ground vibrations when they go out. With the use of seismic equipment, the team can follow the movement and reflection of vibrations. This information can help build a map of underground features and formations. The seismic drilling team may include geologists, explosive experts, and other personnel with training in seismic surveys.

A permit is usually required for seismic drilling. The process can be disruptive and can cause problems for plants, animals, or residents in the region. Permission seekers must describe the area they want to work and what they will do there. While on the site, team members usually follow business protocols set to make the site as secure as possible. They also check waste material to keep the site clean and tidy.

If seismic drilling suggests that training is workable, the team can locate some locations for drilling wells. The company may sink some test wells to confirm the results before starting large-scale production on the site. This survey and exploration can be expensive, especially when companies believe that not all land sites will produce usable deposits. Some sites may not have any useful material, while other deposits may be visible on a seismic survey, but essentially unavailable due to their depth or configuration.

Read More → What is Seismic Drilling

Classification of BOP - Blowout Preventer

There are several types of BOPs, as they can be classified according to their scope, and their conformation.

Classification for use:

The first subdivision distinguishes the onshore (offshore) BOPs . The first ones are generally smaller and simpler, and are used exclusively in drilling rigs on the mainland. Submarines BOPs, on the other hand, are designed to operate in offshore fields, and therefore are used in oil platforms or drillships . They have a more advanced technology, especially for what concerns the control mode of the BOP itself having to be activated from remote locations, and are also more impressive, because of the presence of a frame (chassis) of support, and the different conformation of the wells submarines.

The split of a Blowout preventer stack: the upper one is an annular BOP, the lower one represents a BOP on a jaw.

Classification by constructive technology :

The classification as a function of their architecture, distinguishes between the so-called BOP - blowout preventer

The first ones consist of a rubber ring, perforated in the center and whose hole diameter is equal to that of the well. The ring is contained in a steel crankcase . Inside the crankcase , and under the rubber ring, a hydraulic piston is mounted , which when actuated compresses or decompresses the ring from bottom to top or from top to bottom. In this way the ring (also called anular ) is closed or opened.

The jaws BOPs are also made of a metal casing, in which there are two opposing jaws, and may differ in "Combi", that is, with jaws coupled to two to two in two arms, or "Quad", with four distinct arms.

In the case of BOP for Coiled Tubing of Quad type, we find the following rams: Top Blind Rams, which have the function of hermetically closing the shaft; Shear Rams or Cutter Rams, which have the task of cutting the coiled tubing that is well with blades, followed by the Rams Slip, which have the shape of wedges, which have the task of supporting the coiled tube section cut and left in well. Finally there are the Rams Pipe that must ensure hydraulic seal on the tube and prevent the shaft pressure from creating a Blowout.

Between the Cutters and the Slip there is a kill line, a point where fluid can be pumped to "kill" the well, that is to provide a hydrostatic to the latter, which avoids the blowout. The jaws are controlled by hydraulic pistons through which they can be closed or opened. The first jawbone BOP was invented in 1922.

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Oil Extraction Process

After completion of a drilling step, a series of geoelectric surveys ( logs ) are generally carried out , dropping into the well of the probes. Once this phase has been completed, the well can be intubated by dropping various sections of steel tubes as a hole coating. Coating tubes are cemented to the rock to prevent hydrocarbon leaks or other fluids in the tubular-rock gap.

Finally, the well is completed internally by installing a series of small diameter tubes (7 to 12 cm, tubing ) that have the function of driving oil outside. The well's mouth is equipped with a safety valve system (oil spout called "Christmas Tree") that allows controlled oil delivery in temporary storage tanks or its direct injection into a pipeline .

If the pressure of the oil is not enough to make it trace inside the pipes to the surface or if you want to speed up the mining activity, you can mount the pumps on both the surface and the bottom well. 

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CONVENTIONAL OIL

Definition Oil is a hydrocarbon formed over thousands of years from the decomposition of dead plants and organisms. Intense heat and pressure on this material triggers a reaction, which leads to the creation of oil

Conventional oil is a term used to describe oil that can be produced (extracted from the ground) using traditional drilling methods.  It is liquid at atmospheric temperature and pressure conditions, and therefore flows without additional stimulation.  This is opposed to unconventional oil, which requires advanced production methods due to its geologic formations and/or is heavy and does not flow on its own. 

You may have heard of these terms used to distinguish different types of oil:

​Light vs. Heavy - this refers to the density of oil and its ability to flow.  Lighter oil can be refined with minimal processing due to higher fractions of light hydrocarbons.

Sweet vs. Sour - this refers to the sulphur content of the oil, sulphur must be removed prior to refining.  When oil has sulphur greater than 0.5% it is referred to as "sour."

Because of these variations, oil quality is a spectrum and the distinction between conventional and unconventional is not always black and white. Generally, however, if traditional drilling techniques are used in the oil production it is considered conventional regardless of its physical properties.

Conventional oil is produced using drilling technologies that utilize the natural pressure of an underground reservoir.  Production of a conventional oil well has four main phases[2]:

Exploration: Geological exploration is a series of technologies that are used by geologists and geophysicists to predict the location and extent of underground oil reservoirs.

Drilling: Once a reservoir has been located with sufficient certainty, a drilling rig is used to bore a hole from the surface to the oil reservoir.  Piping is then inserted, allowing the oil to be brought to the surface.  Some of the oil in the reservoir will be produced using the natural pressure of the reservoir.  

Pumping: Gradually the pressure of the well will decrease as oil is produced. At this point a pump will be connected to allow the remaining oil to be extracted.

Abandoning: After all the economically viable oil has been extracted from the well, the well is filled with cement to prevent any hydrocarbons from escaping and a special cap is placed over it to protect the area[3].

Context

Conventional oil tends to be less expensive and complex to extract than unconventional oil due to the routine nature of the production techniques.  This oil is also the most valuable in global markets because it requires the smallest amount of processing prior to refining to create value-added products. Consequently, many of our global conventional oil supplies have already been extracted, limiting the availability of these source for future extraction[2].

Generally, drilling and well abandonment are well-understood and regulated processes but there are always risks with such industrial operations. In drilling, pressure must be regulated carefully to avoid accidents and immediate environmental impacts like land disturbance must be carefully monitored.  After abandonment, well leaks can occur if improper procedures were taken.  

As with all fossil fuel production, there are also concerns with greenhouse gas emissions from their combustion 

Read More → CONVENTIONAL OIL

Steerable Downhole Mud Motor - Directional Drilling

Steerable Downhole Mud Motor (SDMM) commonly referred to as Mud Motor or Drilling Motor acts much as a positive displacement motor which provides additional rpm to the drill bit from the flow of drilling fluid (mud).

This drilling motor is far different from an electrical motor in it's working principle and operation.

(A lot of people get confused initially)

Since its introduction, the positive displacement motor has undergone revolutionary changes and improvements. Downhole drilling motors have proven to be successful in the most rigorous of drilling environments. From the time of its inceptions, the mud motors have gone extensive improvements that has enhanced its performance, operational and economical reliability. 

Today there are numerous players in the industry providing mud motors for different operational requirements. Few to name are National Oil Varco (NOV), Schlumberger, Halliburton, Baker Hughes, Weatherford, Cavo, Bico, Jaguar, APS, etc. Different mud motors provided by different companies vary a little from each other but, there basic operating principle remains the same. 

Mud Motors have extensively wide range of applications and few of them are listed below:

Conventional Directional Drilling

Side-Tracking

Performance Drilling

Short/Medium/Ultra-short Radius Wells

Air/Foam or Under-balanced Drilling 

ERD Wells

HP/HT Wells

Coiled Tubing Drilling

Vertical Drilling

Casing Drilling

Milling

Coring

Slim Hole Drilling

Working Principle

Mud motors converts the flow energy of drilling fluid (mud) in rotational motion that's utilized in rotating drill bits at a much higher rpm. 

It's imperative that flow rate can be used to control the rpm of the drill bit as per operational requirements. Flow rates for muds are provided by the mud pumps.

Bit RPM = {Flow rate (in GPM) x RPG (Revolutions Per Gallon)} + Rotary RPM 

Note: 

RPG is defined as the revolutions made by bit box and in turn bit, when one gallon of mud flows through it & is mentioned by the manufacturer for each type of SDMM.

While sliding rotary rpm will be zero.

Parts of SDMM:

Simple classification of SDMM parts can be categorized as: 

Top Sub Options

Power Section

Drive Shaft Assembly

Adjustable Bent Housing Assembly

Bearing Assembly

Bit Box

Top Sub options

Top Sub: 

Top sub is simply a cross over housing at the top end of the motor. The lower connection uses a thread that connects to the upper box of the stator housing.

Dump Sub:

It contains a Dump Valve Assembly. This allows the mud to fill or drain from the drill string while tripping.

To avoid the ingress of solids from the annulus when the pumps are off, it’s normal to run a float sub as close to the motor as possible.

The motor will function perfectly without a dump valve - It can be laid down and replaced by a sub having the same connections or run with the ports blanked-off. 

Failure of the dump valve assembly can cause sometimes serious troubles.

Motor Catch & Rotor Catch Top Subs:

The rotor catch system is designed to retrieve the motor in case of a housing fracture. It will retrieve the motor from the upper stator box connection down to the drill bit. The motor catch system has the additional feature of an integral catch flange within the top sub. It will retrieve the motor from the top sub down to the drill bit.

Power Section

Positive Displacement Motors (commonly called a PDM) are reverse applications of a Moineau pump or screw pump. 

It mainly consists of Rotor & Stator.  

Rotor is chrome-plated alloy steel of spiral-helix shape. 

Stator is a hollow steel housing, lined with a molded-in-place elastomer rubber compound. 

A spiral-shaped cavity is produced in the stator during manufacturing. The rotor is produced with matching lobe profile and similar helical pitch to the stator, but with one lobe less. The rotor can therefore be matched to and inserted inside the stator. When assembled, the rotor and stator form a continuous seal along their matching contact points. Fluid is pumped into the motor’s progressive cavities. The force of the fluid movement causes the shaft to rotate within the stator. Thus, it is a positive displacement motor. The rotational force is then transmitted through the connecting rod and drive shaft to the bit.

  

Stage is the distance measured parallel to the axis between two corresponding points of the same spiral lobe. This distance is commonly referred to as the lead of the stator. A slight interference fit between rotor OD and stator ID controls motor power. 

Mud motors are divided into slow-speed, medium-speed and high-speed types. This is done by changing the pitch of the motor stages, by the number of "lobes" and resultant cavities of the stator. 

The greater the number of lobes, the higher the motor torque and the lower the output RPM. 

Increasing the flow rate through a given power section directly increases the output speed. To increase the output speed of a power section without changing the flow rate, the cavity size is changed. A high speed power section will require a larger fluid inlet area (cavity) to allow more fluid throughput into the cavity.

The torque generated by the power section is proportional to the differential pressure applied across the power section and is independent of fluid flow. Generally, the more weight applied to the bit, the higher the torque needed to keep the bit turning, so the higher the differential pressure across the Power Section.

The maximum recommended differential pressure is limited by the stator elastomer. If pressure increases beyond the limits of the elastomer, the stator elastomer will deform, breaking the cavity seal so the mud flow leaks past the rotor and rotation stops – this is commonly known as a stalled motor.

Drive Shaft Assembly

The drive shaft assembly converts the eccentric motion of the rotor into concentric rotation for the bearing assembly via a connecting rod attached to the lower end of the rotor. It transmits the torque and rotational speed from the rotor to the drive shaft and bit. Universal joints convert the eccentric motion of the rotor into concentric motion at the drive shaft. 

It also accommodates any angle set on the adjustable bent housing (or fixed bend housing) and carries the thrust load from the rotor caused by the pressure drop across the power section.

Adjustable Bent Housing

ABH connects stator to the bearing assembly and also houses drive shaft assembly. It has a field adjustable angle-setting to produce a wide range of build rates.

Angle setting may be set to zero for vertical drilling or may be set to any other angle setting as desired. Once the angle is set for the mud motor, it can't be changed when it's down hole and has to be pulled out of the hole to change the angle-setting.

Higher rotary rpm could be used at low angle-setting as compared to a high angle-setting.

Drilling at a higher rotary rpm provides a drill bit with more torsional force provided by the entire rotating drill string as compared to the torsional force provided alone by the mud motor.

(That's the reason why ROP in rotary mode > ROP in sliding mode)

Bearing Assembly

The drive shaft assembly is supported within the bearing housing by radial and axial thrust bearings. It transmits the rotation of the drive shaft assembly to the drill bit and the compressive thrust load created by the weight of the collars and drill string to the rotating bit box & supports the radial and bending loads developed while directional drilling.  

It also carries the tensile off-bottom thrust load produced by the pressure drops across the rotor and the drill bit, as well as any load caused during back reaming. The high capacity radial bearings readily withstand side loads caused by drilling with a deflection device or uneven cutting action along the drill bit periphery. The tungsten carbide radial bearings and angular contact bearing section supports the radial loads along the full length of the bearing assembly, creating a very stiff, strong assembly

Types of Bearing Assembly-

Mud Lubricated Bearing Assembly

Oil Sealed Bearing Assembly

Mud Lubricated Bearing Assembly regulate the flow of mud through the bearing assembly. This diverted mud (usually 4 - 10%) is used to cool and lubricate the shaft, radial and thrust bearings. It exits to the annulus directly above the bit sub. The exact percentage of mud diverted is determined by the condition of the bearings and the pressure drop across the bit. Mud lubricated bearing assemblies can be used in the hottest holes with the lowest aniline point drilling fluids, as there are no elastomeric seals.

Oil Sealed Bearing Assembly is an alternative to the mud-lubricated bearing. A sealed bearing would be recommended where corrosive muds are used, where a lot of LCM of various sizes is pumped or where there is a requirement for a very low pressure drop across the bit (Pbit).

Bit Sub

At Bit sub the drill bit is make up with the motor and it's the only moving external part of the motor.

  

Note: 

In addition to above, different manufacturers can have more or less parts.

The operating conditions and parameters for the mud motors may vary for different manufacturers.

Read More → Steerable Downhole Mud Motor - Directional Drilling

Oil Exploration

Crude oil is usually located deep below the earth's surface, without any visible traces of being present.

In the early years of the oil industry, one could easily find small amounts of oil in the vicinity of the oil urinating drilling. "Oil Lakes" are small amounts of oil that come up on the surface or in water.

However, a well drilling is very expensive; Therefore, alternative methods have been sought in order to locate oil. Today, geologists determined using a range of techniques where oil could be found. They make use of include seismic and visual observation techniques to determine the geological formations could contain oil.

• Seismic surveys

this case a small amount of underground explosive is detonated. In addition, to be sensitive instruments used which register the shock waves moving across the ground and which are reflected by rock walls. On the basis of the speed and direction of the waves geologists can identify the type of rock formations, and to detect the types of which are known to oil or hydrocarbons (such as gas) may contain.

• Vibro-seismic survey

, with special vibrating trucks are used, which is a controlled signal to submit the bottom. Although this method is more complicated, it is often used in places where explosives can not be used for practical reasons.

• Geophysical research

, this method is used to measure the thickness of sediment and in order to map out the shape of the structures within the sediment. In this way, often underground structures could be located in the last 30 years where oil had gathered.

• Research based on aerial photographs

on the basis of aerial photos, maps can be established in which the main geological properties are shown of an area. The photos are also used to determine oil field pipelines and infrastructure very closely. This information is of great value for planning seismic surveys and other projects.

• Surface Research

Here, specific localized areas on the ground and it is determined their height. One of the tools used therewith, is a theodolite, which is equipped with a telescope that measurement angles horizontally and vertically.

• Gravity investigation

In this method, there is used a highly sensitive gravimeter, which is analyzed to gravity variations. These variations may indeed indicate hidden geological structures. The study is usually performed in an early stage of exploration. The researchers thereby identify areas that may be potentially interesting. At these zones is then carried out, a more detailed seismic survey.

Drilling for oil

When certain areas of potential interest are labeled, are drills used to dig wells. Seismic research shows that the best places to look for oil. In this way, the risk of finding dry wells ( "dry hole") is limited. They contain no oil.

A drill is guided straight into the ground. If the rig can not be drawn directly on the surface, it is placed next to it and is drilled at an angle. The horizontal drilling technology is used to drill into the portion of the source which horizontally through the oil (the "output section") passes along the path from the oil reservoir.

Oil Transport

Crude oil is transported by pipeline from the drilling rig to tank farms. Since the oil is stored in huge tanks. The crude oil is then transported by pipeline to a local refinery or an oil tanker to an overseas refinery.

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9 Distinct Mud Systems

For mud to manage its many tasks, a broad range of different fluid systems have been developed. 9 distinct mud systems are defined here. 

The first seven are water-based, while the eighth is oil-based. The ninth category is a specialized one in which air or gas is the continuous fluid. 

The 9 categories are:

1. Non dispersed. These may consist of spud muds, natural muds and other lightly treated systemsgenerally used for shallow wells or top-hole drilling.

2. Dispersed. At greater depths or where hole-conditions may be problematic, muds are often dispersed, typically by means of lignosulphonates or other deflocculants. These and similar products are also effective filtrate reducers.

3. Calcium treated. Divalent cations such as calcium and magnesium, when added to a mud, inhibit the swelling of formation clays and shale, and are therefore added to control sloughing shale, hole enlargement and to prevent formation damage. Hydrated lime, gypsum (calcium sulphate) and calcium chloride are principal ingredients of calcium systems. Gyp systems (note: Gyp = gypsum) usually have a pH of 9.5 to 10.5 and an excess gyp concentration of 2 to 4 lb/ bbl; Lime systems have an excess lime concentration of 1 to 15 lb/bbl and a pH of 11.5 to 12.0.

4. Polymer. Muds incorporating long-chain, high-molecular-weight chemicals are effective in increasing viscosity, flocculating muds, reducing filtrate loss and stabilizing the formation. Various types of polymers are available for this purpose, including Bentonite extenders. Bio polymers and cross-linked polymers are also used and have good shear-thinning properties at low concentrations.

5. Low solids. This includes systems in which the amount and type of solids are controlled. Total solids should not range higher than about 6% to 10% by volume (and clay < 3% by volume). One primary advantage of low-solids systems is that they significantly improve the rate of penetration.

6. Saturated salt. Include several groups: Saturated salt systems have a chloride ion concentration of 189 000 ppm. Saltwater systems have a chloride content from 6 000 to 189 000 ppm, and at its lower level are usually referred to as brackish or seawater systems.

7. Workover. Completion and workover fluids are specialized systems designed to minimize formation damage, and be compatible with acidizing and fracturing operations (acid soluble) and capable of inhibiting swelling clays that reduce formation permeability. Density is obtained  through dissolved salt to avoid long term settling.

8. Oil/synthetic. Oil-based fluids are used for high temperature wells, deviated holes and wells where pipe sticking and hole stabilization is a problem.

 They consist of two types of systems:

1) Invert emulsion muds are water-in-oil fluids and have water as the dispersed phase and oil as the continuous phase. They may contain up to 50% water in the liquid phase. Emulsifier (commonly fatty acids amine derivatives, high-molecular-weight soaps), and water concentrations are varied to control rheological and electrical stability;

2) Synthetic fluids are designed to duplicate the performance of oil-based muds, without the environmental hazards. Primary types of synthetic fluids are esters, poly alpha olefins and food grade paraffin. They are environmentally friendly, can be discharged offshore and are non-sheening and biodegradable.

9. Air, mist, foam and gas. Four basic operations are included in this specialized category according

to the IADC. These include:

1) Dry air drilling, which involves injecting dry air or gas into the wellbore at rates capable of achieving annular velocities that will remove cuttings;

2) Mist drilling involves injecting a foaming agent into the air stream, which mixes with produced water and lifts drill cuttings;

3) Stable foam uses chemical detergents and polymers and a foam generator to carry cuttings in fast-moving air stream;

4) Aerated fluids rely on mud with injected air (which reduces the hydrostatic head) to remove drilled solids from the wellbore.

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Drilling Rig

A drilling rig is a machine that creates holes in the earth sub-surface. Drilling rigs can be massive structures housing equipment used to drill water wells, oil wells, or natural gas extraction wells, or they can be small enough to be moved manually by one person and are called augers. Drilling rigs can sample sub-surface mineral deposits, test rock, soil and groundwater physical properties, and also can be used to install sub-surface fabrications, such as underground utilities, instrumentation, tunnels or wells. Drilling rigs can be mobile equipment mounted on trucks, tracks or trailers, or more permanent land or marine-based structures (such as oil platforms, commonly called 'offshore oil rigs' even if they don't contain a drilling rig). The term "rig" therefore generally refers to the complex of equipment that is used to penetrate the surface of the Earth's crust.

Small to medium-sized drilling rigs are mobile, such as those used in mineral exploration drilling, blast-hole, water wells and environmental investigations. Larger rigs are capable of drilling through thousands of metres of the Earth's crust, using large "mud pumps" to circulate drilling mud (slurry) through the drill bit and up the casing annulus, for cooling and removing the "cuttings" while a well is drilled. Hoists in the rig can lift hundreds of tons of pipe. Other equipment can force acid or sand into reservoirs to facilitate extraction of the oil or natural gas; and in remote locations there can be permanent living accommodation and catering for crews (which may be more than a hundred). Marine rigs may operate thousands of miles distant from the supply base with infrequent crew rotation or cycle.

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Conclusion on the processing of oil

The oil must undergo many changes to be exploitable in the context of a specific use. These transformations involve multiple energy consumption, little known today (no doubt the oil industry have information on this issue). In the end, the multitude of products can be used in various ways (fuel, fuel, petrochemical, plastics, etc.).. 

These byproducts are sometimes directly recyclable (gasoline, diesel, etc.). sometimes they will suffer from further processing to be usable, some are even-products, which have no real opportunities. 

The tendency is to a maximum value of by-products, and the proportion of products derived is relatively fixed, Indutries oil must seek additional outlets for products produced in over-quantity. For example, the French fleet dieselisation pushes the quantities of products for which we must be sure the application or to find new markets.

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Cracking and reforming

Cracking is to break the long hydrocarbon molecules into smaller molecules. This can be done by thermal process under high pressure, or catalytic (under high temperatures and in the presence of a compound that facilitates the chemical reaction). When hydrogen is involved, it is called hydrocracking, is when water is called steam cracking. 

The reforming to convert naphtha to produce gasoline or premium. 

There are other processes refining as isomerization, alkylation, etc. ... We can thus influence the characteristics of the products obtained (octane, color, odor, volatility ...).

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Distillation

Crude oil is first heated to 370 ° C. It then partially vaporizes and is carried out in a fractionating column (a kind of distillation tower). 

At the top of the column is recovered refinery gas used as fuel on site. It also recovers other petroleum gas such as butane and propane, gasoline and naphtha. The latter is the base compound of the petrochemical industry. Then recovered kerosene (used iFn aviation, the jet engines), diesel and heating oil. Further down the column is recovered residues, which are re-distilled under vacuum to provide heavy fuel oil, lubricants and bitumen. 

In order to obtain specific grades of gasoline (high octane) and reduce the content sulfur diesel fuels, we must also deal with products of distillation.

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EOR - Enhanced Oil Recovery

When the reservoir pressure is insufficient, we proceed to the injection of fluid (s) to force oil to rise. These fluids may be gas (one of the deposit, or liquefied petroleum gas), or water.

Techniques more advanced (and more energy-intensive), such as thermal methods or fluid drive missible, allow to exploit the deposits difficult.

The thermal method involves heating the oil to the fluid (that is to say, reduce its viscosity). The heat comes from the injection of steam or underground combustion.

The fluid drive missible is performed using carbon dioxide or liquefied petroleum gas, lighter. Finally, chemical methods attempt to limit the capillary that holds the oil in the rocks. This is done using polymers or micro-emulsions of oil, water, alcohols and surfactants.

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Drilling for oil

After the drilling of one exploration well, designed to confirm the presence of oil and other wells are drilled to delineate the deposit. Most wells are drilled using a drill bit, a cutting tool on the end of a set of drill pipe supported by a metal tower called derrick. The drill bit is rotated. The drilling speed varies greatly depending on the nature of the rocks traversed. Of the "drilling mud" (a mixture of clay with water and chemicals) is continuously injected inside the stems. It goes back into the space between the rods and the walls of the well. The mud serves to cool the drill bit and remove the cuttings. Back on the surface, the slurry is filtered and reinjected into the well. Analysis of the debris can qualify the rocks traversed. 

Advances in drilling techniques now allow the completion of drilling small diameter boreholes deviated (obliques), horizontal multidrains, etc ... This progress has allowed the exploitation of deposits that were previously unprofitable, for technical reasons and / or economic. 

For offshore deposits (offshore), is generally used for pumping platform independent. Special ships can be used to exploit deposits of lower capacity.

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Exploration and prospecting for new oil fields

To find oil, we look for sedimentary basins where oil and gas have formed. Gas and oil then had the opportunity to migrate through porous rock capable of holding large quantities. 

In spite of modern tracking techniques (satellite imagery, geophysical, three-dimensional seismic surveys), the discovery of a new deposit is uncertain until the introduction of drilling. Only the latter can confirm the presence of the precious liquid.

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Autonomy of oil reserves

Considering that between 850 and 950 have been consumed Gbl today.

Often given an estimate of oil reserves equivalent to 40 to 60 years of world consumption today is to say slightly less in reality if we take into account the steady rise in consumption, mainly due to the emergence of newly industrialized countries such as China and India. However, the thin oil should lead to an increase in prices, which in turn should limit consumption to the profits of alternative energy sources, fossil fuels (coal, etc.), or renewable. All things considered, it is reasonable to think that we have about 50 years of oil. Remains to be seen at what price ...

It took a century for humanity to consume half of the oil, it will take more than a half to fully deplete the reserves.

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State of the World's Oil Reserves

A simplified figure and relatively speaking: a cube of 7 kilometers from the side, half empty (or half full, it depends), with a leak rate equivalent to the Rhone is the current state of reserves and world oil consumption.

Proven reserves are generally estimated at between 140 and 160 Gt, or 1,050 to 1,200 Gbl. But taking into account technological advances and a recovery rate above 30%, the reserves could reach 266 Gt (or 1'996 GBL). The truth is that the reserves are not well known, and that in addition to proven reserves, it is quite inappropriate to make hypothetical assumptions about the probable reserves and ultimate.

Fairly coarse (and varies according to findings nouvaux oilfields), proven reserves are geographically distributed as follows:

• 55-60% in the Middle East;
• 15-18% in North America;
• 7-8% in Central and South America;
• 6-7% in Eastern Europe and Former Soviet Union;
• 6-8% in Africa;
• 3-5% in Asia and Oceania;
• 1-2% (!) In Western Europe;

I'll let you calculate how many tons or barrels this is by geographic area.

The countries of OPEC account for approximately 75-80% of total world proven reserves. Several sources say, however, that the state reserves of many countries been an overestimate: these optimistic data are primarily used to sit supremacy and economic influence of the major producing countries.

The rise in oil prices led to interest in deposits unconventional oil , such as oil sands, whose operation is known as energy-intensive, highly polluting, and catastrophic for the environment (despite some methods that allow to avoid the creation of open pits).

Global warming also affects some plan to use: the melting of arctic ice led some companies (such as Arctic Oil & Gas Corp) interest in the exploitation of hitherto inaccessible deposits.

Finally, the exploitation of new (types of) deposits appears to be the preferred track to generate more wealth to the detriment of the fight against global warming and more generally the protection of the environment. Or how to cut ever more ardently the branch on which we sit ...

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